Japan

Japan performs relatively poorly (rank 22) in the category of vertical accountability.

Political competition is generally fair and transparent, with elections managed impartially. Lawmakers are elected both in single-seat constituencies and via proportional representation. Despite reforms in 1994 to strengthen competition, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has won most elections since 1996. Women are severely underrepresented in the political system.

Parties and politicians are required to disclose their spending and revenue sources, though illegal donations remain common. Parties are easy to form. Frequent shifts in the opposition party field indicates a lack of cohesion. The LDP is built around personal support networks and factions. No significant environmental party exists.

The political system has long been clientelistic. Ideological polarization has declined. Some prominent right-wing and nationalist politicians have made xenophobic or antisemitic statements without significant public backlash. Access to official information is regulated by law, but exemptions are extensive.

In the category of diagonal accountability, Japan falls into the sample’s bottom ranks (rank 28).

Freedom of speech and the press are guaranteed by the constitution and generally respected by the government. There is little active censorship, though some media engage in self-censorship, particularly regarding the imperial family. Traditional newspapers are still popular, offering a broad ideological range.

Public media in Japan tend to avoid harsh government criticism. Private media support diverse political positions. Media ownership is highly concentrated. The decline of traditional media and the rise of digital platforms have allowed nonmainstream voices to emerge, though this has also led to more nationalist and extremist views entering the public discourse.

Civil society in Japan is active, with groups regularly organizing peaceful demonstrations. Trade unions play a key role in labor policymaking. Large corporations hold significant policy influence, particularly on economic matters. Social welfare and environmental organizations lack similar political connections or national influence.

Japan falls into the bottom ranks internationally (rank 27) with regard to horizontal accountability.

State revenues and expenditures in Japan are audited annually by the independent Board of Audit/ Data protection is overseen by the Personal Information Protection Commission. This body can issue cease-and-desist orders, but cannot impose fines, though business operators violating orders may face imprisonment.

The judiciary is broadly independent of executive influence. Although courts are often lenient toward the government, civil society groups are learning to use the courts to amend laws and regulations. The parliament’s resources and powers are somewhat constrained, limiting its ability to oversee the executive.

Human and civil rights are generally protected, though police maltreatment remains a concern. Although some municipalities have begun to certify same-sex partnerships, same-sex marriage has not been nationally recognized. Refugees face discrimination, with most asylum requests rejected. Corruption remains a concern particularly within the political system.

Japan falls into the sample’s middle ranks (rank 16) in the category of coordination.

The well-staffed Cabinet Office coordinates policy with ministries, while the Cabinet Secretariat provides administrative support to enforce top-down policies. Advisory councils overseen by the prime minister also boost the Cabinet Office’s power, as they allow some bureaucratic procedures to be bypassed.

Japanese ministries are staffed by career professionals, with considerable competition for funds and power. This can allow for inter-ministerial trust, but also limits collaboration. Inter-ministerial coordination takes place through informal working teams. Coordination through the LDP party structure is vital, with most legislative initiatives screened here before being submitted.

Strong national standards provide for uniform public service delivery through, overseen by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Digitalization of government services has enhanced service uniformity. Local governments in Japan have limited financial autonomy.

Japan performs relatively poorly (rank 24) in the category of consensus-building.

Academics are involved as members of various advisory bodies on both the cabinet and ministerial levels. However, the selection of academics is politicized, and scholars who disagree with ministry positions are sometimes removed.

Large corporations wield significant influence over policymaking, with chairpersons often invited to cabinet advisory bodies. Trade unions have less influence than in the past, but have recently increased contacts with the government.

Most social welfare and environmental civil society organizations have limited policy outreach and little presence within cabinet advisory bodies. The government discloses considerable quantities of data in a timely manner, but this data is frequently made available in difficult-to-use formats.

Japan performs relatively poorly (rank 25) in the category of sensemaking.

In recent years, the government has relied on specialized advisory councils for policy coordination rather than a central policy unit. Civil servants lack training in strategic foresight and anticipatory innovation. Ministries rarely plan for multiple scenarios, though this is improving.

All new policies have to be evaluated in terms of necessity, efficiency and effectiveness. Regulatory impact assessments are published online, and stakeholders can submit comments. However, costs and benefits are often not fully quantified, and evaluation reports are sometimes published too late to impact regulations. Sustainability is not a focus of RIAs.

All administrative policies must be evaluated after implementation. The office in charge of ex post reviews bureau also conducts surveys to identify inefficiencies in government policies and procedures, with follow-up surveys after six and 18 months to ensure that improvements are sufficient.

Japan falls into the sample’s lower-middle ranks (rank 20) with regard to economic sustainability.

Japan was one of the first countries to adopt circular economy policies, obliging businesses to reduce waste and enhance product durability. Because the country lies in an earthquake zone, state institutions have put substantial emphasis on preparing for emergency situations. Fossil fuel reliance is high. Observers say policy is insufficient to reach Paris Agreement goals.

Unemployment rates are extremely low. Women’s labor-force participation rate has increased rapidly in recent years, but 90% of all part time workers are women. The gap between regular and non-regular workers, particularly regarding training and benefits, remains a major concern. Spending on active labor market policies is comparatively low.

Corporate taxes are high, but the tax burden is otherwise fairly distributed. Public debt levels are very high, at more than 255% of GDP in 2023, with most debt held by domestic investors. Rising spending has complicated debt-reduction efforts. The budget process often lacks transparency. R&D spending levels are high.

Japan performs relatively poorly (rank 23) in the category of social sustainability.

The education system is very strong, with primary education ranked among the best globally, and students excelling in math, science and reading. Many students attend private cram schools to prepare for competitive entrance exams. Early childhood enrollment rates are very high. Women are underrepresented in some higher education fields such as engineering.

Japan’s healthcare system is efficient and under strain due to the aging population. Public social spending risen substantially due to population aging. Integrated long-term care is provided at the municipal level. Public assistance levels are very low, as is the minimum wage.

Traditional gender roles remain entrenched. The state has sought to open up the labor market for women beyond marginal and part-time employment, with mixed success. Low fertility rates have made family policy an increasing focus. Pension replacement rates are low. Immigration is not encouraged, and integration policies are limited.

In the category of environmental sustainability, Japan performs relatively poorly (rank 23).

In 2021, the state set a target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 46% by 2030, while reaching neutrality by 2050. However, the country’s commitment to achieving this goal is considered weak. Climate change strategy prioritizes economic growth, with a low carbon levy planned for introduction by 2028, and no clear criteria for decarbonization.

The government has promoted “clean coal” technologies, including hydrogen and ammonia derived from fossil fuels, that may increase emissions. Especially after the Fukushima nuclear crisis in 2011, which increased reliance on fossil fuels, the country has played only a passive role in international climate-change discussions.

Strong environmental protections have resulted in significant improvements in air, water and soil quality over the years. By 2020, Japan exceeded the Aichi Biodiversity Target, protecting over 20% of its land and 13% of its sea territory. The government aims to protect 30% of land and oceans by 2030.