Executive Capacity
#29Key Findings
Despite very significant gains under the current government, Greece falls only into the lower-middle ranks (rank 29) with respect to executive capacity. Its score on this measure has improved by 1.5 points as compared to 2014.
The current government has reorganized the executive, replacing the Prime Minister’s Office with the Presidency of Government. This includes strategic planning units, and it coordinates government policy across ministries. A new directorate in each ministry is responsible for liaising with the Presidency and other ministries, substantially improving overall coordination.
Significant steps have been taken toward depoliticizing the civil service and high ministry positions. RIAs are newly required for all bills submitted to parliament. Ex post evaluations will be required five years after passage. New mechanisms have been introduced to encourage ministers to implement the government program.
Societal consultation has been limited during the pandemic. The appointment of skilled managers has improved the efficiency of regulatory enforcement, but the government has still proved reluctant to sanction some powerful interest groups. The government has increased pressure on local authorities to realize national standards.
The current government has reorganized the executive, replacing the Prime Minister’s Office with the Presidency of Government. This includes strategic planning units, and it coordinates government policy across ministries. A new directorate in each ministry is responsible for liaising with the Presidency and other ministries, substantially improving overall coordination.
Significant steps have been taken toward depoliticizing the civil service and high ministry positions. RIAs are newly required for all bills submitted to parliament. Ex post evaluations will be required five years after passage. New mechanisms have been introduced to encourage ministers to implement the government program.
Societal consultation has been limited during the pandemic. The appointment of skilled managers has improved the efficiency of regulatory enforcement, but the government has still proved reluctant to sanction some powerful interest groups. The government has increased pressure on local authorities to realize national standards.
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How much influence do strategic planning units and bodies have on government decision-making?
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Strategic planning units and bodies take a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions, and they exercise strong influence on government decision-making.
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Strategic planning units and bodies take a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions. Their influence on government decision-making is systematic but limited in issue scope or depth of impact.
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Strategic planning units and bodies take a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions. Occasionally, they exert some influence on government decision-making.
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1
In practice, there are no units and bodies taking a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions.
Strategic planning has long proved difficult for the central government in Athens thanks in large part to the archipelago-like character of governance involving conflicting political interests, clientelism and a highly formalistic administrative culture that fosters segmentation. Weak horizontal coordination within and among ministries, government agencies and state-owned companies used to make matters worse.
Strategic planning took precedence after the change of government in 2019. The new government passed a new law aiming to reorganize the government and the upper echelons of the central public administration. The law strengthened the core of the government by reorganizing the Prime Minister’s Office, which became the Presidency of Government. The reorganized prime minister’s office included strategic planning and programming units. It also assumed new tasks such as coordination of government policy across ministries and annual legislative planning. That office works side by side with two government ministers without portfolio, which assist the prime minister with supervising the daily functioning of government and long-term policy cycles. Compared to the past, in 2020–2021, strategic planning has vastly improved.
Citations:
The new law on strategic planning was 4622/2019.
Τhe website of the Greek prime minister is https://primeminister.gr/en/home
Strategic planning took precedence after the change of government in 2019. The new government passed a new law aiming to reorganize the government and the upper echelons of the central public administration. The law strengthened the core of the government by reorganizing the Prime Minister’s Office, which became the Presidency of Government. The reorganized prime minister’s office included strategic planning and programming units. It also assumed new tasks such as coordination of government policy across ministries and annual legislative planning. That office works side by side with two government ministers without portfolio, which assist the prime minister with supervising the daily functioning of government and long-term policy cycles. Compared to the past, in 2020–2021, strategic planning has vastly improved.
Citations:
The new law on strategic planning was 4622/2019.
Τhe website of the Greek prime minister is https://primeminister.gr/en/home
Does the government regularly take into account advice from non-governmental experts during decision-making?
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In almost all cases, the government transparently consults with non-governmental experts in the early stages of government decision-making.
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For major political projects, the government transparently consults with non-governmental experts in the early stages of government decision-making.
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In some cases, the government transparently consults with non-governmental experts in the early stages of government decision-making.
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1
The government does not consult with non-governmental experts, or existing consultations lack transparency entirely and/or are exclusively pro forma.
Following the change in government in 2019 and particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, non-governmental expertise was upgraded in the early stages of decision-making. For instance, in 2020, a committee of economists under the Greek-Cypriot Nobel prize winner in economics C. Pissarides devised the Plan for the Development of the Greek Economy, which included economic policy recommendations. Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government convened two expert committees, the Committee of Epidemiologists and the National Committee on Vaccinations, and continuously consulted with them in the period under review. This development was a vast improvement over past practices.
In the past, most of the ad hoc committees, staffed by academic experts, were formed by ministers for their own sake, not by the prime minister. Qualified academics often served as experts within ministries, where they also acted as administrative elites in Greece’s highly politicized civil service.
Moreover, in the period under review, the New Democracy government attracted a comparatively large number of qualified experts in a variety of policymaking sectors. Some of these individuals had acquired their expertise and job experience in the private sector, while others had worked in Greek and foreign universities. Previous connections to New Democracy proved largely irrelevant to the hiring decisions. This was an improvement over the past, when experts had often been recruited primarily on the grounds of their loyalty to the governing party.
Citations:
The “Pissarides Plan” is available in Greek at: https://government.gov.gr/schedio-anaptixis-gia-tin-elliniki-ikonomia/
In the past, most of the ad hoc committees, staffed by academic experts, were formed by ministers for their own sake, not by the prime minister. Qualified academics often served as experts within ministries, where they also acted as administrative elites in Greece’s highly politicized civil service.
Moreover, in the period under review, the New Democracy government attracted a comparatively large number of qualified experts in a variety of policymaking sectors. Some of these individuals had acquired their expertise and job experience in the private sector, while others had worked in Greek and foreign universities. Previous connections to New Democracy proved largely irrelevant to the hiring decisions. This was an improvement over the past, when experts had often been recruited primarily on the grounds of their loyalty to the governing party.
Citations:
The “Pissarides Plan” is available in Greek at: https://government.gov.gr/schedio-anaptixis-gia-tin-elliniki-ikonomia/
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Does the government office / prime minister’s office (GO / PMO) have the expertise to evaluate ministerial draft bills according to the government’s priorities?
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The GO / PMO provides regular, independent evaluations of draft bills for the cabinet / prime minister. These assessments are guided exclusively by the government’s priorities.
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The GO / PMO evaluates most draft bills according to the government’s priorities.
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The GO / PMO can rely on some sectoral policy expertise but does not evaluate draft bills.
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The GO / PMO does not have any sectoral policy expertise. Its role is limited to collecting, registering and circulating documents submitted for cabinet meetings.
The center of government has traditionally struggled to coordinate and evaluate government legislation. However, following the change in government in July 2019, there has been a visible improvement. New Democracy, which won the national elections, rose to power with a concrete plan of reorganizing decision-making and passing legislation in a less haphazard manner than was the case with preceding governments. Government priorities were clearly laid out in 2020–2021 and interministerial coordination processes were streamlined. Through legislation adopted immediately after the elections, the Prime Minister’s Office was upgraded to the Presidency of the Government, and started playing a vital, overarching role in monitoring targets and evaluating the effectiveness of ministries.
In 2020–2021, the cabinet met regularly to discuss and decide on draft bills, the content of which had previously been evaluated by the Presidency of the Government in conjunction with the competent ministry. Despite all these changes, government ministers occasionally submitted last-minute amendments to laws as they moved through parliament. Overall, however, compared to the pre-2019 period, there has been a visible improvement in the evaluation of policy content according to the government’s priorities.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019, adopted in July 2019, promoted interministerial coordination.
In 2020–2021, the cabinet met regularly to discuss and decide on draft bills, the content of which had previously been evaluated by the Presidency of the Government in conjunction with the competent ministry. Despite all these changes, government ministers occasionally submitted last-minute amendments to laws as they moved through parliament. Overall, however, compared to the pre-2019 period, there has been a visible improvement in the evaluation of policy content according to the government’s priorities.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019, adopted in July 2019, promoted interministerial coordination.
To what extent do line ministries involve the government office/prime minister’s office in the preparation of policy proposals?
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There are inter-related capacities for coordination between GO/PMO and line ministries.
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The GO/PMO is regularly briefed on new developments affecting the preparation of policy proposals.
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Consultation is rather formal and focuses on technical and drafting issues.
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Consultation occurs only after proposals are fully drafted as laws.
Since the onset of the crisis in 2010, the Prime Minister’s Office has gradually acquired more power and resources to supervise line ministries, the policies of which were streamlined in the previous decade to fit the fiscal consolidation effort of Greece. After the change in government in July 2019, ties between line ministries and the Prime Minister’s Office (the Presidency of Government) were further strengthened, as the latter was reorganized and staffed with highly skilled policy experts. In addition, legislation adopted in the same month provided for the installation of a new directorate of coordination in each ministry, responsible for liaising with the Presidency of the Government and other ministries. In brief, in the period under review, the inter-related capacities of the center of government and line ministries vastly improved.
Citations:
Kevin Featherstone and Dimitris Papadimitriou (2013), “The Emperor Has No Clothes! Power and Resources within the Greek Core Executive,” Governance, Vol. 26, Issue 3, pp. 523-545.
The law establishing the new “Directorates of Coordination” in each Ministry is Law 4622/2019.
Citations:
Kevin Featherstone and Dimitris Papadimitriou (2013), “The Emperor Has No Clothes! Power and Resources within the Greek Core Executive,” Governance, Vol. 26, Issue 3, pp. 523-545.
The law establishing the new “Directorates of Coordination” in each Ministry is Law 4622/2019.
How effectively do ministerial or cabinet committees coordinate cabinet proposals?
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The vast majority of cabinet proposals are reviewed and coordinated first by committees.
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Most cabinet proposals are reviewed and coordinated by committees, in particular proposals of political or strategic importance.
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There is little review or coordination of cabinet proposals by committees.
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There is no review or coordination of cabinet proposals by committees. Or: There is no ministerial or cabinet committee.
There are cabinet committees tasked with overseeing specific policy sectors. However, before 2019, with few exceptions, cabinet committees did not engage in systematic coordination over cabinet proposals. Since the change in government in July 2019, there has been a rejuvenation in cabinet committees and visible progress has been achieved in this field.
There are two permanent such councils, the Government Council on National Security (KYSEA) and the Government Council on Economic Policy (KYSOIP). The law provides also for the formation of ad hoc interministerial committees. Proposals of strategic or political importance are first reviewed in such committees, before then being submitted to the cabinet for government approval.
Citations:
The law reorganizing government committees is Law 4622/2019.
There are two permanent such councils, the Government Council on National Security (KYSEA) and the Government Council on Economic Policy (KYSOIP). The law provides also for the formation of ad hoc interministerial committees. Proposals of strategic or political importance are first reviewed in such committees, before then being submitted to the cabinet for government approval.
Citations:
The law reorganizing government committees is Law 4622/2019.
How effectively do ministry officials/civil servants coordinate policy proposals?
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Most policy proposals are effectively coordinated by ministry officials/civil servants.
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Many policy proposals are effectively coordinated by ministry officials/civil servants.
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There is some coordination of policy proposals by ministry officials/civil servants.
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There is no or hardly any coordination of policy proposals by ministry officials/civil servants.
Greek bureaucracy is politicized and under-resourced, as political party cadres rather than civil servants coordinate policy proposals. Civil servants in line ministries often lack modern scientific and management skills. Policy proposals are usually assigned to ministerial advisers, who are short-term political appointees and can be non-academic experts, academics and governing party cadres. Top civil servants contribute to policy proposals by suggesting what is legally permissible and technically feasible, although even on those issues ministers often tend to trust their own legal and technical advisers. The remaining civil servants at lower levels of the bureaucratic hierarchy rarely, if ever, know of, let alone contribute to policy proposals.
However, in the period under review, there were serious steps toward de-politicizing the civil service. The meritocratic selection of senior civil servants in particular was finally improved after the change in government in July 2019. The new government proceeded to fill the director general posts by following regulations provided by law regarding the selection of better educated and more experienced (civil servant) candidates. Political influences over selection procedures were not completely absent, but compared to the past there was much less politicization.
The government also passed legislation depoliticizing high-ranking ministerial positions. It created in every ministry the post of service secretary, which is reserved for senior civil servants, who are selected by a non-politicized committee of the Higher Council for the Selection of Civil Service Personnel (the ASEP). The post of service secretary was established to isolate the management of routine ministry work and the management of human resources of ministries from government interference. The new post was placed on the side of the post of general secretary, which is normally occupied by a political appointee, responsible for seeing through the implementation of government policy. In 2021, new legislation reorganized some of the procedures of the ASEP and streamlined the recruitment of new public sector employees.
Citations:
The new law on higher civil service is Law 4622/2019 while the new law regulating recruitment of new public employees is Law 4765/2021.
However, in the period under review, there were serious steps toward de-politicizing the civil service. The meritocratic selection of senior civil servants in particular was finally improved after the change in government in July 2019. The new government proceeded to fill the director general posts by following regulations provided by law regarding the selection of better educated and more experienced (civil servant) candidates. Political influences over selection procedures were not completely absent, but compared to the past there was much less politicization.
The government also passed legislation depoliticizing high-ranking ministerial positions. It created in every ministry the post of service secretary, which is reserved for senior civil servants, who are selected by a non-politicized committee of the Higher Council for the Selection of Civil Service Personnel (the ASEP). The post of service secretary was established to isolate the management of routine ministry work and the management of human resources of ministries from government interference. The new post was placed on the side of the post of general secretary, which is normally occupied by a political appointee, responsible for seeing through the implementation of government policy. In 2021, new legislation reorganized some of the procedures of the ASEP and streamlined the recruitment of new public sector employees.
Citations:
The new law on higher civil service is Law 4622/2019 while the new law regulating recruitment of new public employees is Law 4765/2021.
How effectively do informal coordination mechanisms complement formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination?
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Informal coordination mechanisms generally support formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
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In most cases, informal coordination mechanisms support formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
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In some cases, informal coordination mechanisms support formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
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Informal coordination mechanisms tend to undermine rather than complement formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
After the change in government in 2019, coordination mechanisms were formalized much more than in the past. The center of the government (i.e., the Presidency of Government and the directorates of coordination, established in each government ministry in 2019) left little space for informal coordination among ministries. Nevertheless, particularly in periods of crisis (e.g., the pandemic of 2020–2021 and the wildfires of 2021), informal coordination has been undertaken by the deputy prime minister, one additional minister and one junior minister without portfolio, who were appointed to serve directly under the prime minister and tasked with steering the government mechanism.
How extensively and effectively are digital technologies used to support interministerial coordination (in policy development and monitoring)?
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The government uses digital technologies extensively and effectively to support interministerial coordination.
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The government uses digital technologies in most cases and somewhat effectively to support interministerial coordination.
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The government uses digital technologies to a lesser degree and with limited effects to support interministerial coordination.
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The government makes no substantial use of digital technologies to support interministerial coordination.
Since the change in government in 2019, there has been a vast improvement in the use of digital technologies in government. The Prime Minister’s Office in Greece (the Presidency of Government) started using modern information and communication technologies to monitor government mechanisms much more than in the past. The Special Secretariat of Integrated Information Systems was established within that office, and is tasked with digitizing the coordination and evaluation of government work.
Τhe Presidency of Government was aided by the new Ministry of Digital Governance, also established after the change in government. The new ministry spread the use of digital technologies across the government. The ministry aims to achieve interoperability between state records systems, enabling different agencies to “talk” to each other and share information. The lockdown and movement restriction measures taken in 2020–2021 vastly limited face-to-face interactions among civil servants from different ministries. In brief, the management of the COVID-19 pandemic gave further impetus to digital interministerial coordination.
Moreover, there is policy coordination with regard to the implementation of a few transversal policies, such as public procurement. The latter is now managed by a national system of public procurement (EAADHSY). This system functions through an appropriately developed digital platform for tenders, and applications from suppliers of goods and services interested in serving the public sector.
Citations:
The new “Special Secretariat of Integrated Information Systems” was established by Law 4622/2019. Its place in the government is shown at official website https://primeminister.gr/primeminister/proedria-tis-kivernisis
The digital platform for public procurement, covering all ministries and agencies of the public sector, is available at http://www.eaadhsy.gr/
Τhe website of the Ministry of Digital Governance is available at https://mindigital.gr/
Τhe Presidency of Government was aided by the new Ministry of Digital Governance, also established after the change in government. The new ministry spread the use of digital technologies across the government. The ministry aims to achieve interoperability between state records systems, enabling different agencies to “talk” to each other and share information. The lockdown and movement restriction measures taken in 2020–2021 vastly limited face-to-face interactions among civil servants from different ministries. In brief, the management of the COVID-19 pandemic gave further impetus to digital interministerial coordination.
Moreover, there is policy coordination with regard to the implementation of a few transversal policies, such as public procurement. The latter is now managed by a national system of public procurement (EAADHSY). This system functions through an appropriately developed digital platform for tenders, and applications from suppliers of goods and services interested in serving the public sector.
Citations:
The new “Special Secretariat of Integrated Information Systems” was established by Law 4622/2019. Its place in the government is shown at official website https://primeminister.gr/primeminister/proedria-tis-kivernisis
The digital platform for public procurement, covering all ministries and agencies of the public sector, is available at http://www.eaadhsy.gr/
Τhe website of the Ministry of Digital Governance is available at https://mindigital.gr/
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To what extent does the government assess the potential impacts of existing and prepared legal acts (regulatory impact assessments, RIA)?
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RIA are applied to all new regulations and to existing regulations which are characterized by complex impact paths. RIA methodology is guided by common minimum standards.
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RIA are applied systematically to most new regulations. RIA methodology is guided by common minimum standards.
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RIA are applied in some cases. There is no common RIA methodology guaranteeing common minimum standards.
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RIA are not applied or do not exist.
In 2019, the new government passed legislation (Law 4622/2019) on RIAs, which had been formally introduced as a routine in 2006 but never actually implemented. The same law established a new unit, the Better Regulation Office, subsumed under the Prime Minister’s Office (the Presidency of the Government), tasked with overseeing the RIA process. Since October 2020, no bill of law is to be submitted to parliament, unless accompanied by an RIA.
In the past, all legislative drafts submitted to the parliament were accompanied by a document that outlined the rationale for the bill. Today, the RIA for each legislative draft is conducted on a basis of common methodology following international standards. RIAs are not limited to legal issues (e.g., legal conflicts), but also include social and economic aspects of the new legislation under preparation. The General Accounting Office estimates the cost of the bill of law for the state budget, if the competent minister provides the office with adequate data (which may not be always possible).
In brief, as recognized by the OECD, in 2020–2021, RIA processes in Greece were vastly improved. In the future, RIAs could be improved through insisting on better societal engagement in assessing the impact of legislation. In addition, RIAs could be applied to secondary legislation or at least to the most critical presidential decrees prepared and issued by the competent minister preparing the decree.
Citations:
OECD, Regulatory Policy Outlook 2021 (https://www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-regulatory-policy-outlook-2021-38b0fdb1-en.htm)
In the past, all legislative drafts submitted to the parliament were accompanied by a document that outlined the rationale for the bill. Today, the RIA for each legislative draft is conducted on a basis of common methodology following international standards. RIAs are not limited to legal issues (e.g., legal conflicts), but also include social and economic aspects of the new legislation under preparation. The General Accounting Office estimates the cost of the bill of law for the state budget, if the competent minister provides the office with adequate data (which may not be always possible).
In brief, as recognized by the OECD, in 2020–2021, RIA processes in Greece were vastly improved. In the future, RIAs could be improved through insisting on better societal engagement in assessing the impact of legislation. In addition, RIAs could be applied to secondary legislation or at least to the most critical presidential decrees prepared and issued by the competent minister preparing the decree.
Citations:
OECD, Regulatory Policy Outlook 2021 (https://www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-regulatory-policy-outlook-2021-38b0fdb1-en.htm)
Does the RIA process ensure participation, transparency and quality evaluation?
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RIA analyses consistently involve stakeholders by means of consultation or collaboration, results are transparently communicated to the public and assessments are effectively evaluated by an independent body on a regular basis.
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The RIA process displays deficiencies with regard to one of the three objectives.
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The RIA process displays deficiencies with regard to two of the three objectives.
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RIA analyses do not exist or the RIA process fails to achieve any of the three objectives of process quality.
RIAs were not implemented in Greece before the change of government in 2019 and the adoption of new legislation.
Since October 2020, all bills of law submitted to parliament must be accompanied by an RIA. Before a bill of law is submitted to parliament, it is uploaded on the competent ministry’s website to enable stakeholders to submit comments and criticisms. It is then revised by the ministry’s staff, taking into account – to a variable degree – suggestions for amendments. After that stage, the bill of law is submitted to parliament to be debated in the competent parliamentary committee, before the parliament’s plenum is convened to vote on the bill of law. The RIA documents accompanying the bill of law are available to members of parliament and to the public (although the public’s interest in details of legislative work is very limited).
This process, which was followed in the period under review, represents a vast improvement over the complete neglect of RIAs in the past, even though the quality of RIAs could be improved.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019 organized the RIA framework.
Since October 2020, all bills of law submitted to parliament must be accompanied by an RIA. Before a bill of law is submitted to parliament, it is uploaded on the competent ministry’s website to enable stakeholders to submit comments and criticisms. It is then revised by the ministry’s staff, taking into account – to a variable degree – suggestions for amendments. After that stage, the bill of law is submitted to parliament to be debated in the competent parliamentary committee, before the parliament’s plenum is convened to vote on the bill of law. The RIA documents accompanying the bill of law are available to members of parliament and to the public (although the public’s interest in details of legislative work is very limited).
This process, which was followed in the period under review, represents a vast improvement over the complete neglect of RIAs in the past, even though the quality of RIAs could be improved.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019 organized the RIA framework.
Does the government conduct effective sustainability checks within the framework of RIA?
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Sustainability checks are an integral part of every RIA; they draw on an exhaustive set of indicators (including social, economic, and environmental aspects of sustainability) and track impacts from the short- to long-term.
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Sustainability checks lack one of the three criteria.
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Sustainability checks lack two of the three criteria.
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Sustainability checks do not exist or lack all three criteria.
The new legislation on RIAs, passed in 2019, requires that the RIA for every bill submitted to parliament includes statistical, economic, environmental and town planning data. It is expected that the law’s impact is checked against such data. However, the law does not specifically mention 17 SDGs nor does it require that RIAs are aligned with the SDGs.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019 article 62 para. 3 requires that the RIA includes detailed data.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019 article 62 para. 3 requires that the RIA includes detailed data.
To what extent do government ministries regularly evaluate the effectiveness and/or efficiency of public policies and use results of evaluations for the revision of existing policies or development of new policies?
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Ex post evaluations are carried out for all significant policies and are generally used for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
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Ex post evaluations are carried out for most significant policies and are used for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
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Ex post evaluations are rarely carried out for significant policies and are rarely used for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
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Ex post evaluations are generally not carried out and do not play any relevant role for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
Ex post evaluation is a brand-new concept in Greece’s regulatory process. It was only legislated as late as 2019, after the change in government in 2019. It is now a requirement that laws are evaluated five years after their adoption. It is too early for ex post evaluation to be implemented, but the new legal provision represents a vast improvement in policymaking compared to the past.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019 art. 56 introduced ex post evaluation of regulations.
Citations:
Law 4622/2019 art. 56 introduced ex post evaluation of regulations.
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Does the government consult with societal actors in a fair and pluralistic manner?
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The government always consults with societal actors in a fair and pluralistic manner.
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The government in most cases consults with societal actors in a fair and pluralistic manner.
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The government does consult with societal actors, but mostly in an unfair and clientelistic manner.
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The government rarely consults with any societal actors.
There is some consultation with societal actors, but – during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic – consultation has been limited. Interested citizens can and do participate in the process of open electronic public consultation on new government measures, which each ministry must announce and manage before drafting a bill. Representatives of interest groups and scientific associations are regularly invited to express their views in sessions of parliamentary committees in which bills of law are debated. Moreover, there is a strong tradition of organized interest groups (e.g., public sector unions, associations and liberal professions) voicing opinions on policy matters through social protest (street protests, strikes). To a smaller degree, citizens also rely on NGOs and local social movements for information and for making claims on policy issues.
In the period under review, government decisions on economic and healthcare policy relied less on societal consultation and more on consultation with economic and health experts. The latter formulated measures to prevent the spread of the disease, and alleviate the economic hardship of citizens and businesses that saw their revenues plummet owing to movement restrictions and the closing of economic activities.
In the period under review, government decisions on economic and healthcare policy relied less on societal consultation and more on consultation with economic and health experts. The latter formulated measures to prevent the spread of the disease, and alleviate the economic hardship of citizens and businesses that saw their revenues plummet owing to movement restrictions and the closing of economic activities.
Graph View
To what extent does the government achieve coherent communication?
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Ministries are highly successful in aligning their communication with government strategy.
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Ministries most of the time are highly successful in aligning their communication with government strategy.
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Ministries occasionally issue public statements that contradict the public communication of other ministries or the government strategy.
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Strategic communication planning does not exist; individual ministry statements regularly contradict each other. Messages are often not factually consistent with the government’s strategy.
After the change in government in 2019, the prime minister, the government’s spokesperson and the minister of finance, along with other ministers, regularly conveyed messages which were in line with the government’s strategy in different policy sectors. Compared to the past, strategic communication and planning improved in 2020–2021.
Instances of government ministers communicating contradictory messages were rare. Furthermore, the government made use of the Presidency of the Government (i.e., the reorganized Prime Minister’s Office). Established in July 2019, the Presidency of the Government includes, among other units, the General Secretariat for Communication and Information.
There are designated government officials to communicate the government’s strategy. The government’s spokesperson regularly meets with and informs the press. The general secretary of government coordination periodically makes public announcements, clarifying the position of the government. Moreover, during critical moments, the prime minister addresses the Greek people via live TV broadcasts. For example, the prime minister delivered such an address when the government imposed a lockdown in March 2020 to prevent COVID-19 from spreading through the country.
Following the turbulent 2015–2019 period, in which political communication was as polarized and unpredictable as the political scene itself, government communication has become much more coherent. A central theme of the post-2019 communication strategy has been “normality,” with the New Democracy government implying that it was time for Greece to become a typical, normal EU-like market economy and parliamentary democracy. This has evidently been a successful strategy, as New Democracy’s popularity has remained high since it won the parliamentary elections of 2019. In 2020–2021, New Democracy’s approval ratings were consistently higher than the approval ratings of its main competitor, Syriza.
Instances of government ministers communicating contradictory messages were rare. Furthermore, the government made use of the Presidency of the Government (i.e., the reorganized Prime Minister’s Office). Established in July 2019, the Presidency of the Government includes, among other units, the General Secretariat for Communication and Information.
There are designated government officials to communicate the government’s strategy. The government’s spokesperson regularly meets with and informs the press. The general secretary of government coordination periodically makes public announcements, clarifying the position of the government. Moreover, during critical moments, the prime minister addresses the Greek people via live TV broadcasts. For example, the prime minister delivered such an address when the government imposed a lockdown in March 2020 to prevent COVID-19 from spreading through the country.
Following the turbulent 2015–2019 period, in which political communication was as polarized and unpredictable as the political scene itself, government communication has become much more coherent. A central theme of the post-2019 communication strategy has been “normality,” with the New Democracy government implying that it was time for Greece to become a typical, normal EU-like market economy and parliamentary democracy. This has evidently been a successful strategy, as New Democracy’s popularity has remained high since it won the parliamentary elections of 2019. In 2020–2021, New Democracy’s approval ratings were consistently higher than the approval ratings of its main competitor, Syriza.
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To what extent can the government achieve its own policy objectives?
10
9
9
The government can largely implement its own policy objectives.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is partly successful in implementing its policy objectives or can implement some of its policy objectives.
5
4
3
4
3
The government partly fails to implement its objectives or fails to implement several policy objectives.
2
1
1
The government largely fails to implement its policy objectives.
Significant structural reforms were legislated by successive Greek governments in the decade to 2021, but their mix and implementation were and continue to be uneven. Policy implementation efforts have been problematic because of bureaucratic and legal wranglings. For instance, long-awaited reforms in higher education and the pension system were legislated, but not really implemented.
Nevertheless, in 2020–2021, progress was made. The World Bank Government Effectiveness indicator – which measures, among other things, the quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government’s commitment to such policies – recorded a rise from 0.29 in 2018 to 0.44 in 2020.
Some flagship investment projects, such as the Hellinikon project, moved forward. The government was successful in striking a deal with private investors for the development of the decommissioned Hellinikon airport, on the coast just outside Athens. After long delays in the pre-2019 period, the €8 billion project started at the end of 2021. It will combine public parks, beachfront residences, and high-end shopping and office spaces in a vast area. If successful, the project could create as many as 75,000 jobs and increase the country’s GDP by four percentage points. The beginning of implementation of Greece’s biggest development project is an indication of improved government effectiveness in the period under review.
Citations:
World Bank, Government Effectiveness available at https://govdata360.worldbank.org/indicators/h580f9aa5?country=GRC&indicator=388&viz=line_chart&years=1996,2020
Information on the Hellinikon project is available at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-05-09/athens-hellinikon-project-hinges-on-buyers-from-abroad
and also at the official site of the project: https://theellinikon.com.gr/en/about/
Nevertheless, in 2020–2021, progress was made. The World Bank Government Effectiveness indicator – which measures, among other things, the quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government’s commitment to such policies – recorded a rise from 0.29 in 2018 to 0.44 in 2020.
Some flagship investment projects, such as the Hellinikon project, moved forward. The government was successful in striking a deal with private investors for the development of the decommissioned Hellinikon airport, on the coast just outside Athens. After long delays in the pre-2019 period, the €8 billion project started at the end of 2021. It will combine public parks, beachfront residences, and high-end shopping and office spaces in a vast area. If successful, the project could create as many as 75,000 jobs and increase the country’s GDP by four percentage points. The beginning of implementation of Greece’s biggest development project is an indication of improved government effectiveness in the period under review.
Citations:
World Bank, Government Effectiveness available at https://govdata360.worldbank.org/indicators/h580f9aa5?country=GRC&indicator=388&viz=line_chart&years=1996,2020
Information on the Hellinikon project is available at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-05-09/athens-hellinikon-project-hinges-on-buyers-from-abroad
and also at the official site of the project: https://theellinikon.com.gr/en/about/
To what extent does the organization of government provide mechanisms to ensure that ministers implement the government’s program?
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9
The organization of government successfully provides strong mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
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6
7
6
The organization of government provides some mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
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4
3
4
3
The organization of government provides weak mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
2
1
1
The organization of government does not provide any mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
After the change in government in July 2019, the New Democracy government introduced strong mechanisms to encourage ministers to implement the government’s program. This included appointing two ministers without portfolio to assist the prime minister; establishing the well-resourced Presidency of Government, which includes units responsible for overseeing policy implementation in ministries; equipping the Presidency of Government with the digital infrastructure to monitor government work through integrated information systems; and scheduling regular cabinet meetings. In 2020–2021, a handful of mechanisms made sure that the implementation gap would not be as wide as it used to be during the period of economic crisis or in earlier periods.
How effectively does the government office/prime minister’s office monitor line ministry activities with regard to implementation?
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9
9
The GO / PMO effectively monitors the implementation activities of all line ministries.
8
7
6
7
6
The GO / PMO monitors the implementation activities of most line ministries.
5
4
3
4
3
The GO / PMO monitors the implementation activities of some line ministries.
2
1
1
The GO / PMO does not monitor the implementation activities of line ministries.
The lax monitoring of line ministries by the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO), a characteristic of previous review periods, has largely been addressed. On the one hand, throughout the economic crisis, the PMO monitored the implementation of most line ministries’ activities to avoid any further deterioration in public finances, owing to uncontrolled government expenditure. On the other hand, after the change in government in 2019, the center of government, now titled the Presidency of Government, tightened procedures for monitoring line ministries’ implementation activities, introducing a “new governance model.” The model was crystallized in the legal stipulations adopted in July 2019, which enhanced the mechanisms supporting the prime minister by establishing new units and procedures at the Presidency of Government. The model entails close coordination of policy measures prepared in ministries, and follow-up of the cabinet’s and the prime minister’s decisions.
Citations:
The law establishing the new governance model is Law 4622/2019.
Citations:
The law establishing the new governance model is Law 4622/2019.
How effectively do federal and subnational ministries monitor the activities of bureaucracies/executive agencies with regard to implementation?
10
9
9
The ministries effectively monitor the implementation activities of all bureaucracies/executive agencies.
8
7
6
7
6
The ministries monitor the implementation activities of most bureaucracies/executive agencies.
5
4
3
4
3
The ministries monitor the implementation activities of some bureaucracies/executive agencies.
2
1
1
The ministries do not monitor the implementation activities of bureaucracies/executive agencies.
In Greece, most ministries supervise dozens of executive agencies. For instance, the Ministry of Transport supervises the state-owned public transport companies in Athens and Thessaloniki, the Ministry of Health supervises all public hospitals, and the Ministry of Finance supervises numerous state-owned enterprises. During the period under review, the government continued to closely monitor the executive agencies. There were adequate reasons for such close monitoring. Memories of state agencies contributing to the deterioration in public finances in previous periods remain fresh. Moreover, the monitoring of public health, public employment and social welfare agencies was critical in 2020–2021, as COVID-19 spread through the country, and agencies had to toe the government line in order to manage the corresponding public health and social crisis.
To what extent does the central government ensure that tasks delegated to subnational self-governments are adequately funded?
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9
9
The central government enables subnational self-governments to fulfill all their delegated tasks by funding these tasks sufficiently and/or by providing adequate revenue-raising powers.
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7
6
The central government enables subnational governments to fulfill most of their delegated tasks by funding these tasks sufficiently and/or by providing adequate revenue-raising powers.
5
4
3
4
3
The central government sometimes and deliberately shifts unfunded mandates to subnational governments.
2
1
1
The central government often and deliberately shifts unfunded mandates to subnational self-governments.
Traditionally, in Greece, subnational governments raise limited funding independently and remain under the tutelage of the central government as far as funding is concerned. The revenue of subnational governments primarily comes from the state budget. In the past, the central government would sometimes deliberately shift unfunded mandates to subnational governments, but this practice was curtailed during the economic crisis of 2010–2018. Since the change in government in 2019, the New Democracy government has prioritized stimulating economic growth primarily through incentives to private investors rather than through subnational governments or other state entities. A policy shift to recalibrate the distribution of funding between the central and subnational governments is not in sight.
To what extent does central government ensure that subnational self-governments may use their constitutional scope of discretion with regard to implementation?
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9
9
The central government enables subnational self-governments to make full use of their constitutional scope of discretion with regard to implementation.
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7
6
Central government policies inadvertently limit the subnational self-governments’ scope of discretion with regard to implementation.
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3
4
3
The central government formally respects the constitutional autonomy of subnational self-governments, but de facto narrows their scope of discretion with regard to implementation.
2
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1
The central government deliberately precludes subnational self-governments from making use of their constitutionally provided implementation autonomy.
Subnational authorities have limited scope of discretion in Greece. While the autonomy of subnational self-governments is nominally guaranteed by the constitution – which requires that the government provides them with all legislative, regulatory and financial means to accomplish their tasks – in practice, subnational self-governments have few financial means at their disposal. Between the economic crisis of the previous decade and the period under review, successive governments have narrowed the scope of fiscal discretion available to subnational self-governments, because – given the large size of Greece’s public debt – state finances are at risk of collapsing.
Citations:
Article 102 of the constitution provides for the autonomy of subnational governments.
OECD, Regional Policy for Greece Post-2020 (especially Ch. 4) available at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/regional-policy-for-greece-post-2020_cedf09a5-en
Citations:
Article 102 of the constitution provides for the autonomy of subnational governments.
OECD, Regional Policy for Greece Post-2020 (especially Ch. 4) available at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/urban-rural-and-regional-development/regional-policy-for-greece-post-2020_cedf09a5-en
To what extent does central government ensure that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services?
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9
Central government effectively ensures that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services.
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7
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Central government largely ensures that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services.
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3
4
3
Central government ensures that subnational self-governments realize national minimum standards of public services.
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1
Central government does not ensure that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services.
In the period under review, there was some improvement in the implementation of national standards. It was realized that failing to implement such standards risks another fiscal derailment, similar to that which led to the 2010–2018 economic crisis. Today, the government ensures more than it did during the crisis period that subnational self-governments realize national standards. Such self-governments are heavily dependent on the central government for their funding, and thus they are under the surveillance of the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Finance.
To what extent is government enforcing regulations in an effective and unbiased way, also against vested interests?
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9
9
Government agencies enforce regulations effectively and without bias.
8
7
6
7
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Government agencies, for the most part, enforce regulations effectively and without bias.
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3
4
3
Government agencies enforce regulations, but ineffectively and with bias.
2
1
1
Government agencies enforce regulations ineffectively, inconsistently and with bias.
In Greece, it is difficult to argue that enforcement of regulations is effective. In the past, Greek governments used to employ pro-government individuals rather than skilled managers to head government agencies. This pattern dampened efficient and unbiased enforcement. Since the change in government in 2019, skilled professionals or experts rather than political party officials have been appointed to government agencies. In important cases, such as the state-run Public Power Corporation (DEI), the appointment of skilled managers has led to better results following a period of tremendous financial losses.
On the other hand, in various sectors (e.g., commercial shipping, mass media and construction), there have always been resourceful interest groups and influential businessmen. Governments have been and remain unwilling or unable to deal with them. The establishment of the National Transparency Authority (the EAD) in 2019 was a step forward in the enforcement of regulations. However, generally in government agencies, there are long backlogs of cases, as with EFKA, the social security agency responsible for awarding public pensions.
On the other hand, in various sectors (e.g., commercial shipping, mass media and construction), there have always been resourceful interest groups and influential businessmen. Governments have been and remain unwilling or unable to deal with them. The establishment of the National Transparency Authority (the EAD) in 2019 was a step forward in the enforcement of regulations. However, generally in government agencies, there are long backlogs of cases, as with EFKA, the social security agency responsible for awarding public pensions.
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To what extent does the government respond to international and supranational developments by adapting domestic government structures?
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9
9
The government has appropriately and effectively adapted domestic government structures to international and supranational developments.
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7
6
In many cases, the government has adapted domestic government structures to international and supranational developments.
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3
4
3
In some cases, the government has adapted domestic government structures to international and supranational developments.
2
1
1
The government has not adapted domestic government structures, no matter how beneficial adaptation might be.
After Greece exited the third Economic Adjustment Program (2015–2018) in August 2018, it remained under an enhanced European Commission surveillance system. Surveillance reports on Greece are issued every three months, with the latest one issued in November 2021. During the period under review, the government adapted its domestic structures to international and supranational developments.
Following the change in government in 2019, the Prime Minister’s Office was renamed the Presidency of Government. It acquired more authority to steer government and public administration in a post-crisis path toward economic development. New administrative units and additional skilled staff were assigned to the Presidency of Government.
After the COVID-19 crisis hit, the government put together two expert committees, consisting of epidemiologists and medical school professors, one on monitoring the evolution of the pandemic and the other on vaccinations. The government consulted with the committees before announcing public health measures.
On the other hand, there was inertia on the part of the government with regard to international trends, such as attaining the United Nation’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). After the Prime Minister’s Office had issued the first National Voluntary Report for Greece on the SDGs in 2018, there was no structural adaptation in any government unit to follow-up on sustainable development in 2020–2021.
To sum up, in the period under review, government structures have adapted to manage issues from previous crises (the euro zone crisis) or new crises (the COVID-19 pandemic), while there was structural inertia regarding longer-term targets (sustainable development).
Citations:
Greece first “National Voluntary Report” on the 17 SDGs is available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19378Greece_VNR_Greece_2018_pdf_FINAL_140618.pdf
Following the change in government in 2019, the Prime Minister’s Office was renamed the Presidency of Government. It acquired more authority to steer government and public administration in a post-crisis path toward economic development. New administrative units and additional skilled staff were assigned to the Presidency of Government.
After the COVID-19 crisis hit, the government put together two expert committees, consisting of epidemiologists and medical school professors, one on monitoring the evolution of the pandemic and the other on vaccinations. The government consulted with the committees before announcing public health measures.
On the other hand, there was inertia on the part of the government with regard to international trends, such as attaining the United Nation’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). After the Prime Minister’s Office had issued the first National Voluntary Report for Greece on the SDGs in 2018, there was no structural adaptation in any government unit to follow-up on sustainable development in 2020–2021.
To sum up, in the period under review, government structures have adapted to manage issues from previous crises (the euro zone crisis) or new crises (the COVID-19 pandemic), while there was structural inertia regarding longer-term targets (sustainable development).
Citations:
Greece first “National Voluntary Report” on the 17 SDGs is available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/19378Greece_VNR_Greece_2018_pdf_FINAL_140618.pdf
To what extent is the government able to collaborate effectively with international efforts to foster global public goods?
10
9
9
The government can take a leading role in shaping and implementing collective efforts to provide global public goods. It is able to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress.
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7
6
7
6
The government is largely able to shape and implement collective efforts to provide global public goods. Existing processes enabling the government to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress are, for the most part, effective.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is partially able to shape and implement collective efforts to provide global public goods. Processes designed to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress show deficiencies.
2
1
1
The government does not have sufficient institutional capacities to shape and implement collective efforts to provide global public goods. It does not have effective processes to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress.
As a euro area member, and participant in EU summits and ministerial meetings, Greece has engaged in international efforts to foster the provision of public goods.
For instance, Greece has actively participated in international forums on environmental and cultural issues; it has also been vocal at the European level in pressuring for a coordinated response to migration challenges, emphasizing that migration from the developing world into Europe is not solely a Greek problem arising from its geographical position between Europe and Asia.
Moreover, in contrast to the pre-2019 period, Greece has been more active in EU forums. For instance, in January 2021, the Greek government officially submitted a proposal to EU authorities to establish a EU-wide vaccination certificate for people vaccinated against COVID-19.
Ιn May 2021, Greece submitted a candidacy for non-permanent member of the UN Security Council (2025-6).
Over time, however, Greece has been unable to develop institutional capacities for fostering the provision of global public goods beyond its role as an EU member state.
Citations:
Greece’s official proposal for a EU-wide vaccination certificate is available at: https://primeminister.gr/en/2021/01/12/25597
For instance, Greece has actively participated in international forums on environmental and cultural issues; it has also been vocal at the European level in pressuring for a coordinated response to migration challenges, emphasizing that migration from the developing world into Europe is not solely a Greek problem arising from its geographical position between Europe and Asia.
Moreover, in contrast to the pre-2019 period, Greece has been more active in EU forums. For instance, in January 2021, the Greek government officially submitted a proposal to EU authorities to establish a EU-wide vaccination certificate for people vaccinated against COVID-19.
Ιn May 2021, Greece submitted a candidacy for non-permanent member of the UN Security Council (2025-6).
Over time, however, Greece has been unable to develop institutional capacities for fostering the provision of global public goods beyond its role as an EU member state.
Citations:
Greece’s official proposal for a EU-wide vaccination certificate is available at: https://primeminister.gr/en/2021/01/12/25597
Graph View
To what extent do actors within the government monitor whether institutional arrangements of governing are appropriate?
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9
9
The institutional arrangements of governing are monitored regularly and effectively.
8
7
6
7
6
The institutional arrangements of governing are monitored regularly.
5
4
3
4
3
The institutional arrangements of governing are selectively and sporadically monitored.
2
1
1
There is no monitoring.
During the period under review, the monitoring of institutional governance arrangements was improved. In the past, monitoring was inefficient as it was often delegated to governing party officials with little administrative experience. After the change in government in 2019, the new government reorganized governance structures and appointed highly skilled experts with job experience in the private sector to various management posts across the public sector. All governance monitoring was executed from the top, namely by the Prime Minister’s Office (recently renamed, the Presidency of the Government). In 2020–2021, the prime minister was aided by the skilled staff of that office and by two government ministers without a portfolio, as well as technocrats responsible for monitoring institutional arrangements.
To what extent does the government improve its strategic capacity by changing the institutional arrangements of governing?
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9
9
The government improves its strategic capacity considerably by changing its institutional arrangements.
8
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7
6
The government improves its strategic capacity by changing its institutional arrangements.
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3
4
3
The government does not improve its strategic capacity by changing its institutional arrangements.
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1
1
The government loses strategic capacity by changing its institutional arrangements.
After the elections of July 2019, the new government devised plans to reform central-government institutions in a variety of policy sectors. Emphasizing the need to improve the long-term planning, programming and monitoring of public policies, the new government passed and implemented legislation that reorganized the Prime Minister’s Office (the PMO). The new PMO was renamed as the Presidency of the Government in a new law adopted in 2019. Thereafter, the Presidency of the Government designed procedures to strengthen the state’s strategic capacity, which were quickly rolled out across different policy sectors. These included, for example, a long-term strategy for the digitalization of public services traditionally provided in person and on-site. The government also developed a long-term strategy designed to promote economic development, after the European Union launched the Recovery and Resilience Fund. The government devised the Recovery and Resilience Plan, which the European Commission approved in 2021. It also developed a strategy to manage migration inflows and to facilitate the transfer of migrants from overcrowded islands in the Aegean Sea to the Greek mainland. Finally, the government established the new National Security Council and the new National Authority on Transparency. Overall, strategic capacity that draws on scientific knowledge and long-term planning has vastly improved.
Citations:
The law reorganizing the Prime Minister’s Office was Law 4622/2019
Citations:
The law reorganizing the Prime Minister’s Office was Law 4622/2019