Social Policies
#15Key Findings
Showing considerable gains in recent years, Spain falls into the upper-middle ranks internationally (rank 15) in the area of social policies. Its score on this measure has increased by 0.9 points since 2014.
The healthcare system is generally of high quality, with very good outcomes. The high degree of decentralization and a number of institutional shortcomings slowed decision-making in the early COVID-19 period, but coordination between the central and regional governments improved over time.
Education outcomes are mediocre due in part to out-of-date curriculum and teaching-quality concerns. Schools were well-prepared for lockdowns with digital infrastructure and tools, but many students did not have access to devices or internet at home, increasing inequality. The pandemic pushed a significant number of people into poverty. A minimum-income scheme has consequently been accelerated.
Family policy has evolved to recognize family-structure pluralism. Free childcare has been expanded to children three and under, and paternity leave has been increased. The gender pay gap is large.
Benefit reforms are addressing sustainability issues in the pension system. Despite little official government action in this area, immigrants’ integration is facilitated by broad societal tolerance.
The healthcare system is generally of high quality, with very good outcomes. The high degree of decentralization and a number of institutional shortcomings slowed decision-making in the early COVID-19 period, but coordination between the central and regional governments improved over time.
Education outcomes are mediocre due in part to out-of-date curriculum and teaching-quality concerns. Schools were well-prepared for lockdowns with digital infrastructure and tools, but many students did not have access to devices or internet at home, increasing inequality. The pandemic pushed a significant number of people into poverty. A minimum-income scheme has consequently been accelerated.
Family policy has evolved to recognize family-structure pluralism. Free childcare has been expanded to children three and under, and paternity leave has been increased. The gender pay gap is large.
Benefit reforms are addressing sustainability issues in the pension system. Despite little official government action in this area, immigrants’ integration is facilitated by broad societal tolerance.
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To what extent does education policy deliver high-quality, equitable and efficient education and training?
10
9
9
Education policy fully achieves the criteria.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policy largely achieves the criteria.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policy partially achieves the criteria.
2
1
1
Education policy does not achieve the criteria at all.
Despite significant improvements in the education system since the 1980s, educational outcomes in Spain are low compared to those of other OECD countries. The main reasons for the poor results, although the causes differ strongly across regions, include a curriculum that is widely regarded as being out of date, poor teaching quality and the large number of students who repeat years. Although early school-leaving rates continue to decrease (30.9% in 2009; 16% in 2020) figures are still very high (the EU average in 2020 was 9.9%). The employment rate among recent graduates is still below the EU average, although the 2019 rate was the highest since the beginning of the 2008 financial crisis.
As result of the COVID-19 outbreak, all education centers were closed from March until the end of May 2020, and in-person education was replaced by distance learning. Schools were well equipped with digital infrastructure and tools, and – even though teachers were not fully prepared – their reaction was overwhelmingly positive. Autonomous communities prepared digital learning platforms for teachers and students. The schools have remained open since September 2020. However, the pandemic posed significant challenges for socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Education authorities estimate that around 10% of the country’s 8.2 million students did not have access to digital devices or the internet at home. The Ministry of Education, city councils and NGOs launched initiatives to alleviate the digital divide. Some companies contributed by providing free tablets, smartphones and broadband access.
The RRP includes specific measures in the area of education and skills. The main goals include enhancing the digital skills of teachers and pupils, boosting vocational training, and extending nursery education for children up to three years old. In 2021, due to European funding, transfers from the central government to the autonomous communities for education increased by 70.2%, and the share of public money allocated to maintenance grants for students from poor backgrounds was also increased.
The education system is based on a strong commitment to inclusiveness and values at all levels of education. The government’s commitment to equity is reflected in the new Organic Education Law, the LOMLOE (Organic Law Amending the Organic Law of Education) which came into force on 19 January 2021. The law includes measures to ensure that students from low-income families are equally represented in public and semi-private centers (i.e., centers that receive state funding, many of which are run by Catholic groups). Extracurricular activities that must be paid for will not be allowed within school hours, and city councils will be able to cede public land only for the construction of public education centers. Digitalization and the development of digital competences are together one of the 10 priorities of the law, which will also provide a reference framework for digital teacher competence. However, like all the other education laws before, the law (which was approved with 177 votes in favor, 148 against and 17 abstentions) failed to produce political consensus, with identity issues (language and religion) again serving as the main conflict lines.
In December 2021, the parliament approved a new Vocational Training Law which aims to create 200,000 new vocational training places by 2023. A total of €5.47 billion has been allocated to implement the law between 2022 and 2025, €1.55 billion of which is coming from the EU Recovery Plan.
Citations:
EC(2020), Education and Trading Monitor, Spain
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c9527d62-2497-11eb-9d7e-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-171316235
Gobierno de España (2021), Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resiliencia https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/temas/fondos-recuperacion/Documents/160621-Plan_Recuperacion_Transformacion_Resiliencia.pdf
Consejo Escolar de España (2022): Situación actual de la educación en España a consecuencia de la pandemia`Current situation of education in Spain after the pandemic] https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/dam/jcr:d6fb3623-2fee-47b3-899b-f9c47ae48ab8/situacion-educacion-covid–avance-15-ene-.pdf
As result of the COVID-19 outbreak, all education centers were closed from March until the end of May 2020, and in-person education was replaced by distance learning. Schools were well equipped with digital infrastructure and tools, and – even though teachers were not fully prepared – their reaction was overwhelmingly positive. Autonomous communities prepared digital learning platforms for teachers and students. The schools have remained open since September 2020. However, the pandemic posed significant challenges for socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Education authorities estimate that around 10% of the country’s 8.2 million students did not have access to digital devices or the internet at home. The Ministry of Education, city councils and NGOs launched initiatives to alleviate the digital divide. Some companies contributed by providing free tablets, smartphones and broadband access.
The RRP includes specific measures in the area of education and skills. The main goals include enhancing the digital skills of teachers and pupils, boosting vocational training, and extending nursery education for children up to three years old. In 2021, due to European funding, transfers from the central government to the autonomous communities for education increased by 70.2%, and the share of public money allocated to maintenance grants for students from poor backgrounds was also increased.
The education system is based on a strong commitment to inclusiveness and values at all levels of education. The government’s commitment to equity is reflected in the new Organic Education Law, the LOMLOE (Organic Law Amending the Organic Law of Education) which came into force on 19 January 2021. The law includes measures to ensure that students from low-income families are equally represented in public and semi-private centers (i.e., centers that receive state funding, many of which are run by Catholic groups). Extracurricular activities that must be paid for will not be allowed within school hours, and city councils will be able to cede public land only for the construction of public education centers. Digitalization and the development of digital competences are together one of the 10 priorities of the law, which will also provide a reference framework for digital teacher competence. However, like all the other education laws before, the law (which was approved with 177 votes in favor, 148 against and 17 abstentions) failed to produce political consensus, with identity issues (language and religion) again serving as the main conflict lines.
In December 2021, the parliament approved a new Vocational Training Law which aims to create 200,000 new vocational training places by 2023. A total of €5.47 billion has been allocated to implement the law between 2022 and 2025, €1.55 billion of which is coming from the EU Recovery Plan.
Citations:
EC(2020), Education and Trading Monitor, Spain
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/c9527d62-2497-11eb-9d7e-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-171316235
Gobierno de España (2021), Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resiliencia https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/temas/fondos-recuperacion/Documents/160621-Plan_Recuperacion_Transformacion_Resiliencia.pdf
Consejo Escolar de España (2022): Situación actual de la educación en España a consecuencia de la pandemia`Current situation of education in Spain after the pandemic] https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/dam/jcr:d6fb3623-2fee-47b3-899b-f9c47ae48ab8/situacion-educacion-covid–avance-15-ene-.pdf
Graph View
To what extent does social policy prevent exclusion and decoupling from society?
10
9
9
Policies very effectively enable societal inclusion and ensure equal opportunities.
8
7
6
7
6
For the most part, policies enable societal inclusion effectively and ensure equal opportunities.
5
4
3
4
3
For the most part, policies fail to prevent societal exclusion effectively and ensure equal opportunities.
2
1
1
Policies exacerbate unequal opportunities and exclusion from society.
After some positive public policy results in this field in 2019, during the pandemic, the relative poverty rate again increased, and more sharply this time. In 2021 Oxfam Intermón warned that the impact of COVID-19 in Spain could leave 1 million more people below the poverty line, with this total population reaching 10.9 million. According to the National Statistics Institute, the percentage of the population at risk of poverty or social exclusion (AROPE rate) increased in 2021 to 26.4%, up from 25.3% in 2019. Those at higher risk of marginalization include immigrants, unemployed youth and elderly people with small pensions. The significantly higher prevalence of women in the sectors that were completely locked down was not offset by higher numbers of key workers or teleworkers, indicating a significant gender imbalance in the impact of the COVID-19 decrees.
In 2020, Prime Minister Sánchez described his four-year government program as “social patriotism.” Faced with the pandemic, the government regulated certain protections for those groups that, due to their vulnerability, could be subject to eviction. Other measures included for example a moratorium on mortgage repayments for the principal residence of mortgage-holders who became unemployed or who, as entrepreneurs or professionals, suffered a substantial loss of income during the coronavirus crisis.
In 2021 the government accelerated the introduction of the guaranteed minimum income scheme, which was approved in May 2020, with the aim of reducing extreme poverty in Spain by 80% (1.6 million people). Until 2020, there were 17 different schemes in Spain, with each run by a different regional government. These programs have now been reduced, with additional support offered to people in need.
The payment of the new minimum income scheme depends on a family’s income and their overall situation. Migrants who have been living legally in Spain for at least a year can apply for the guaranteed minimum income.
However, administrative capacities were limited and administrative procedures took more time than expected due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on public administration. At the end of September 2020, important amendments were made to the minimum income scheme aimed at improving access to and the effective coverage of the new scheme, as well as at streamlining the bureaucratic load.
In September 2021, the minimum wage was increased by €17.5 per month from the previous year, and fixed at €1,125.8 per month.
In areas of discrimination not associated with poverty, particularly LGBTI rights and gender equality, the situation is much better. The WPS Index (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security) ranked Spain 14th (up from 15th in 2019) out of 153 countries with regard to women’s social inclusion and security in 2021. In March 2021, the government presented a bill to the parliament on the issue of real and effective equality for transgender people, which raised controversy among the members of the coalition.
The government promoted a package of measures to foster equal treatment, non-discrimination and positive attitudes toward diversity, with one component being the National Artificial Intelligence Strategy. This strategy provides for measures to develop AI based on ethical principles, including inclusion and non-discrimination.
Most autonomous communities have equality strategies or plans in place to promote the equality of women and men, as well as specific regulations for the prevention of gender violence and for the care of victims of gender violence.
Citations:
INE (2021), Living Conditions Survey
https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176807&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976608
Georgetown University (2021), Women, Peace, and Security Index, https://giwps.georgetown.edu/the-index/
Oxfam Intermón (2021), Superar la pandemia y reducir la desigualdad. https://f.hubspotusercontent20.net/hubfs/426027/Oxfam-Website/oi-informes/superar-covid-reducir-desigualdad-oxfam-intermon.pdf
In 2020, Prime Minister Sánchez described his four-year government program as “social patriotism.” Faced with the pandemic, the government regulated certain protections for those groups that, due to their vulnerability, could be subject to eviction. Other measures included for example a moratorium on mortgage repayments for the principal residence of mortgage-holders who became unemployed or who, as entrepreneurs or professionals, suffered a substantial loss of income during the coronavirus crisis.
In 2021 the government accelerated the introduction of the guaranteed minimum income scheme, which was approved in May 2020, with the aim of reducing extreme poverty in Spain by 80% (1.6 million people). Until 2020, there were 17 different schemes in Spain, with each run by a different regional government. These programs have now been reduced, with additional support offered to people in need.
The payment of the new minimum income scheme depends on a family’s income and their overall situation. Migrants who have been living legally in Spain for at least a year can apply for the guaranteed minimum income.
However, administrative capacities were limited and administrative procedures took more time than expected due to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on public administration. At the end of September 2020, important amendments were made to the minimum income scheme aimed at improving access to and the effective coverage of the new scheme, as well as at streamlining the bureaucratic load.
In September 2021, the minimum wage was increased by €17.5 per month from the previous year, and fixed at €1,125.8 per month.
In areas of discrimination not associated with poverty, particularly LGBTI rights and gender equality, the situation is much better. The WPS Index (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security) ranked Spain 14th (up from 15th in 2019) out of 153 countries with regard to women’s social inclusion and security in 2021. In March 2021, the government presented a bill to the parliament on the issue of real and effective equality for transgender people, which raised controversy among the members of the coalition.
The government promoted a package of measures to foster equal treatment, non-discrimination and positive attitudes toward diversity, with one component being the National Artificial Intelligence Strategy. This strategy provides for measures to develop AI based on ethical principles, including inclusion and non-discrimination.
Most autonomous communities have equality strategies or plans in place to promote the equality of women and men, as well as specific regulations for the prevention of gender violence and for the care of victims of gender violence.
Citations:
INE (2021), Living Conditions Survey
https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176807&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976608
Georgetown University (2021), Women, Peace, and Security Index, https://giwps.georgetown.edu/the-index/
Oxfam Intermón (2021), Superar la pandemia y reducir la desigualdad. https://f.hubspotusercontent20.net/hubfs/426027/Oxfam-Website/oi-informes/superar-covid-reducir-desigualdad-oxfam-intermon.pdf
Graph View
To what extent do health care policies provide high-quality, inclusive and cost-efficient health care?
10
9
9
Health care policy achieves the criteria fully.
8
7
6
7
6
Health care policy achieves the criteria largely.
5
4
3
4
3
Health care policy achieves the criteria partly.
2
1
1
Health care policy does not achieve the criteria at all.
In 2018, the Bloomberg Healthiest Country Index ranked Spain as the healthiest country in the world. However, the country’s aging population and the accompanying increase in the incidence of chronic diseases poses a risk to the system’s sustainability. Funding cuts to the healthcare sector following the 2008 financial crisis have led to increasing variability in the quality of healthcare services across autonomous communities, which are responsible for the delivery of healthcare services. Numerous experts and practitioners have for some time been denouncing the cuts inflicted on the system, and the consequent lack of human and material resources. The system is designed in a relatively efficient way to offer primary care. However, COVID-19 has revealed weaknesses in the healthcare system, both in terms of public health policy and patient care. Health workers organized strikes in 2020 and 2021 to protest dangerous working conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as problems with pay and staffing linked to budget cuts in previous years. At the beginning of the pandemic, due to a combination of party politics, territorial cleavages and long-standing institutional deficits, such as poor coordination among governments and an unclear division of competences, decisions were made relatively late and slowly. Moreover, the lack of capacity (data collection, material, testing and analysis) conditioned Spain’s public health responses. Nevertheless, coordination improved over time, and representatives of the health authorities began meeting frequently to exchange information and reach agreements, such as on common standards for PCR tests, the closure of bars, restricting smoking in public spaces, and the implementation of measures for residences for the elderly.
During the first six months of 2021, Spain’s COVID-19 vaccination campaign progressed very well. In December 2021, more than 80% of the Spanish population was already immunized, and fears of the omicron variant had triggered new rounds of vaccination.
There are still important differences between autonomous communities regarding spending. There is a group of autonomous communities with an expenditure of around €1,300 per inhabitant (Andalusia, Madrid, Catalonia, La Rioja, Murcia and Valencia) and a group of autonomous communities where expenditure per capita is around €1,900 (Basque Country, Navarre and Asturias). These differences are due to geographic and sociodemographic situations, but also have an impact on healthcare provision.
In 2018, Spain adopted a national law that significantly expanded healthcare access to all residents, including undocumented migrants. However, limited geographic access to primary care in rural areas is a major challenge. Numerous experts and practitioners (e.g., the Spanish Society for Public Health and Health Administration) have for some time been denouncing the cuts inflicted on the system, and the consequent decline in healthcare equity. The Spanish government has recognized this situation, and has initiated several reforms to improve healthcare provision, but the results will not be visible until 2022.
The coalition government program (adopted in January 2020) included the goal of increasing spending on the national health service to 7% of GDP by 2023. The spending increase includes €1 billion for acquiring COVID-19 vaccines, and €1.09 billion for modernizing and updating primary care. Spending will also increase for the National Health System Quality Plan.
The RRP includes a set of measures to strengthen and expand the capacities of the National Health System. According to the plan, and as a lesson from the crisis, the National Ministry of Health will improve its constitutionally determined coordination function and seek to ensure national standards in healthcare delivery. Moreover, the coordination and multilevel governance in the management of the National Health System will be improved. In this regard, the government proposed the creation of National Public Health Center to help improve system governance and to foster cooperation mechanisms between the healthcare and public health services of the autonomous communities. Within this context in December 2021, the government approved the National Mental Health Strategy for 2022 – 2026, together with the regional governments.
Citations:
Erkoreka, Mikel; Grau Creus, Mireia; Kölling, Mario (2021) Decentralisation and COVID-19: the Spanish territorial system under pressure, en Nico Steytler (ed.) Comparative Federalism and COVID-19: Combatting the Pandemic, Routledge.
Gobierno de España (2021), Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resiliencia https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/temas/fondos-recuperacion/Documents/160621-Plan_Recuperacion_Transformacion_Resiliencia.pdf
During the first six months of 2021, Spain’s COVID-19 vaccination campaign progressed very well. In December 2021, more than 80% of the Spanish population was already immunized, and fears of the omicron variant had triggered new rounds of vaccination.
There are still important differences between autonomous communities regarding spending. There is a group of autonomous communities with an expenditure of around €1,300 per inhabitant (Andalusia, Madrid, Catalonia, La Rioja, Murcia and Valencia) and a group of autonomous communities where expenditure per capita is around €1,900 (Basque Country, Navarre and Asturias). These differences are due to geographic and sociodemographic situations, but also have an impact on healthcare provision.
In 2018, Spain adopted a national law that significantly expanded healthcare access to all residents, including undocumented migrants. However, limited geographic access to primary care in rural areas is a major challenge. Numerous experts and practitioners (e.g., the Spanish Society for Public Health and Health Administration) have for some time been denouncing the cuts inflicted on the system, and the consequent decline in healthcare equity. The Spanish government has recognized this situation, and has initiated several reforms to improve healthcare provision, but the results will not be visible until 2022.
The coalition government program (adopted in January 2020) included the goal of increasing spending on the national health service to 7% of GDP by 2023. The spending increase includes €1 billion for acquiring COVID-19 vaccines, and €1.09 billion for modernizing and updating primary care. Spending will also increase for the National Health System Quality Plan.
The RRP includes a set of measures to strengthen and expand the capacities of the National Health System. According to the plan, and as a lesson from the crisis, the National Ministry of Health will improve its constitutionally determined coordination function and seek to ensure national standards in healthcare delivery. Moreover, the coordination and multilevel governance in the management of the National Health System will be improved. In this regard, the government proposed the creation of National Public Health Center to help improve system governance and to foster cooperation mechanisms between the healthcare and public health services of the autonomous communities. Within this context in December 2021, the government approved the National Mental Health Strategy for 2022 – 2026, together with the regional governments.
Citations:
Erkoreka, Mikel; Grau Creus, Mireia; Kölling, Mario (2021) Decentralisation and COVID-19: the Spanish territorial system under pressure, en Nico Steytler (ed.) Comparative Federalism and COVID-19: Combatting the Pandemic, Routledge.
Gobierno de España (2021), Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resiliencia https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/temas/fondos-recuperacion/Documents/160621-Plan_Recuperacion_Transformacion_Resiliencia.pdf
Graph View
To what extent do family support policies enable women to combine parenting with participation in the labor market?
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9
9
Family support policies effectively enable women to combine parenting with employment.
8
7
6
7
6
Family support policies provide some support for women who want to combine parenting and employment.
5
4
3
4
3
Family support policies provide only few opportunities for women who want to combine parenting and employment.
2
1
1
Family support policies force most women to opt for either parenting or employment.
Traditionally, Spain is categorized within the Southern European social model, due largely to its strong dependence on family assistance and support. However, concerns about very low fertility rates have grown since the 1990s, which has awakened a new sensibility to the need to support caregiving performed by families. Family policy in Spain has evolved from support for the patriarchal family to a recognition of family pluralism, and from the evolution of the family salary to a policy that aims to combat poverty and promote family-work life balance.
Budgetary limitations and the slow implementation of programs that provide care for dependents has made it difficult for women to free themselves of the burden of family care. In 2021, the government adopted an expansion of free childcare for children three years old and under. Previously, Spanish public schooling had been free for children from three to 18 years of age.
Paternity leave in Spain was also increased. Since 2020, male employees can take up to 12 weeks of paternity leave. The 2021 budget plan included a further rise in paternity leave from 12 to 16 weeks.
There is a wage and pension-value gap of close to 23% between men and women, and unemployment rates are disproportionately high among women.
Royal Law-Decree 6/2019 addresses urgent measures to ensure equal opportunities, and equal treatment between men and women at work. At the beginning of December 2020, the Spanish government adopted two complementary decrees intended to improve gender equality in the workplace. The Equality Plan Decree (Royal Decree 901/2020) regulates the minimum requirements for company equality plans (the diagnosis, contents, issues to be treated, pay audits, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms) as well as the registration of these plans. The Equal Pay Decree (Royal Decree 902/2020) refers to the obligation that professional classifications be carried out based on nondiscriminatory criteria.
The various pieces of legislation within the autonomous communities provide different solutions to discrimination based on gender identity. Some autonomous communities have established joint anti-discrimination protections on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation (Galicia, Catalonia, Extremadura, Murcia and Andalusia). Others have established specific and differentiated protection based on sexual identity (the Chartered Community of Navarre, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Madrid, the Valencian Community and Aragon).
Nevertheless in 2021, Spain was ranked by the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report at 14th out of 156 countries (2020, eighth out of 156 countries). In fact, much as in other countries, the coronavirus crisis led to a resurgence in traditional family roles in Spain.
In 2020 and 2021, the government approved family support policies designed to ensure a fair distribution of the burden between the partners during the crisis, such as the urgent action plan adopted in March 2020. In 2021, workers’ rights and support in the area of work-life balance have been strengthened. For example, workers can request greater flexibility in work hours or a reduction in working hours in order to take care of family members.
In September 2021, in coordination with other departments, the Ministry of Equality launched the preparation of a blueprint aiming to design policies for the reconciliation of family life and employment, expected to be delivered in one year. The goal is to reduce the amount of people who are not able to shorten their work days in order to take care of relatives (49.6% in 2018, according to INE).
Citations:
INE (2020), ‘Women and men in Spain,’ section on ‘Reasons for part-time work according to age groups,’ www.ine.es/ss/Satellite?L=es_ES&c=INESeccion_C&cid=1259925461773&p=1254735110672&pagename=
European Equality Law Network (2021), Spain – Country report gender equality 2020, https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/5450-spain-country-report-gender-equality-2021-pdf-1-53-mb
World Economic Forum (2021) Global Gender Gap Report 2021 https://www.weforum.org/reports/ab6795a1-960c-42b2-b3d5-587eccda6023/in-full
Budgetary limitations and the slow implementation of programs that provide care for dependents has made it difficult for women to free themselves of the burden of family care. In 2021, the government adopted an expansion of free childcare for children three years old and under. Previously, Spanish public schooling had been free for children from three to 18 years of age.
Paternity leave in Spain was also increased. Since 2020, male employees can take up to 12 weeks of paternity leave. The 2021 budget plan included a further rise in paternity leave from 12 to 16 weeks.
There is a wage and pension-value gap of close to 23% between men and women, and unemployment rates are disproportionately high among women.
Royal Law-Decree 6/2019 addresses urgent measures to ensure equal opportunities, and equal treatment between men and women at work. At the beginning of December 2020, the Spanish government adopted two complementary decrees intended to improve gender equality in the workplace. The Equality Plan Decree (Royal Decree 901/2020) regulates the minimum requirements for company equality plans (the diagnosis, contents, issues to be treated, pay audits, and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms) as well as the registration of these plans. The Equal Pay Decree (Royal Decree 902/2020) refers to the obligation that professional classifications be carried out based on nondiscriminatory criteria.
The various pieces of legislation within the autonomous communities provide different solutions to discrimination based on gender identity. Some autonomous communities have established joint anti-discrimination protections on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation (Galicia, Catalonia, Extremadura, Murcia and Andalusia). Others have established specific and differentiated protection based on sexual identity (the Chartered Community of Navarre, the Basque Country, the Canary Islands, Madrid, the Valencian Community and Aragon).
Nevertheless in 2021, Spain was ranked by the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report at 14th out of 156 countries (2020, eighth out of 156 countries). In fact, much as in other countries, the coronavirus crisis led to a resurgence in traditional family roles in Spain.
In 2020 and 2021, the government approved family support policies designed to ensure a fair distribution of the burden between the partners during the crisis, such as the urgent action plan adopted in March 2020. In 2021, workers’ rights and support in the area of work-life balance have been strengthened. For example, workers can request greater flexibility in work hours or a reduction in working hours in order to take care of family members.
In September 2021, in coordination with other departments, the Ministry of Equality launched the preparation of a blueprint aiming to design policies for the reconciliation of family life and employment, expected to be delivered in one year. The goal is to reduce the amount of people who are not able to shorten their work days in order to take care of relatives (49.6% in 2018, according to INE).
Citations:
INE (2020), ‘Women and men in Spain,’ section on ‘Reasons for part-time work according to age groups,’ www.ine.es/ss/Satellite?L=es_ES&c=INESeccion_C&cid=1259925461773&p=1254735110672&pagename=
European Equality Law Network (2021), Spain – Country report gender equality 2020, https://www.equalitylaw.eu/downloads/5450-spain-country-report-gender-equality-2021-pdf-1-53-mb
World Economic Forum (2021) Global Gender Gap Report 2021 https://www.weforum.org/reports/ab6795a1-960c-42b2-b3d5-587eccda6023/in-full
Graph View
To what extent does pension policy realize goals of poverty prevention, intergenerational equity and fiscal sustainability?
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9
9
Pension policy achieves the objectives fully.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policy achieves the objectives largely.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policy achieves the objectives partly.
2
1
1
Pension policy does not achieve the objectives at all.
Spanish pension policy achieves the goal of poverty prevention, but meets intergenerational-equity and fiscal-sustainability standards to only a moderate degree. Whereas the poverty rate among Spain’s general population is 26%, the rate among the elderly is only 12%. Thus, the elderly are less economically vulnerable than active but unemployed workers, which demonstrates that the current system does not ensure equity across different generations – that is, pensioners, the active labor force and youth.
The pension system represents the largest single piece of public spending (more than €120 billion per year), with nearly €30 billion in annual losses in 2020. Pension expenditure will rise from 12% of total government expenditure in 2021 to more than 16% in 2050.
Over the past years, there has been no shortage of warnings from within or outside Spain (e.g., the Bank of Spain, the EC, IMF and OECD) that the country’s pension system is heading toward a crisis. As part of the RRP, the EC requested that a pension reform proposal be presented in 2021. In fact, during 2020 and 2021 the government tried to strike a pact with the opposition and social partners to ring-fence the public pension system. In December 2021, the government and social partners reached an agreement according to which pensions will be indexed to prices, and bonuses and penalties modified to encourage working longer. The agreement includes the reevaluation of pensions in conjunction with changes in the consumer price index so as to maintain purchasing power. Finally, a new instrument called the Intergenerational Equity Mechanism has been introduced. The mechanism consists of an increase in the contribution rate of 0.6 percentage points (0.5 for employers and 0.1 for employees) up to 2032. This will help mitigate the financial impact of the baby-boom generation reaching retirement.
The pension reform came into force on 1 January 2022. Each year, pensions will be increased in line with the average annual inflation rate recorded in the previous year. In 2022, the increase will be 2.5%. However, the increase will be 3% for recipients of minimum pensions, noncontributory pensions and the minimum vital income.
Citations:
EC (2021), Actualización Programa de Estabilidad 2021-2024 – https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/2021-spain-stability-programme_es.pdf
OECD (2021) Pensions at a Glance 2021 – https://www.oecd.org/spain/PAG2021-ESP.pdf
Ley 21/2021, de 28 de diciembre, de garantía del poder adquisitivo de las pensiones y de otras medidas de refuerzo de la sostenibilidad financiera y social del _istema público de pensiones. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2021-21652#:~:text=A%2D2021%2D21652-,Ley%2021%2F2021%2C%20de%2028%20de%20diciembre%2C%20de%20garant%C3%ADa,a%20165113%20(30%20p%C3%A1gs.%20)
The pension system represents the largest single piece of public spending (more than €120 billion per year), with nearly €30 billion in annual losses in 2020. Pension expenditure will rise from 12% of total government expenditure in 2021 to more than 16% in 2050.
Over the past years, there has been no shortage of warnings from within or outside Spain (e.g., the Bank of Spain, the EC, IMF and OECD) that the country’s pension system is heading toward a crisis. As part of the RRP, the EC requested that a pension reform proposal be presented in 2021. In fact, during 2020 and 2021 the government tried to strike a pact with the opposition and social partners to ring-fence the public pension system. In December 2021, the government and social partners reached an agreement according to which pensions will be indexed to prices, and bonuses and penalties modified to encourage working longer. The agreement includes the reevaluation of pensions in conjunction with changes in the consumer price index so as to maintain purchasing power. Finally, a new instrument called the Intergenerational Equity Mechanism has been introduced. The mechanism consists of an increase in the contribution rate of 0.6 percentage points (0.5 for employers and 0.1 for employees) up to 2032. This will help mitigate the financial impact of the baby-boom generation reaching retirement.
The pension reform came into force on 1 January 2022. Each year, pensions will be increased in line with the average annual inflation rate recorded in the previous year. In 2022, the increase will be 2.5%. However, the increase will be 3% for recipients of minimum pensions, noncontributory pensions and the minimum vital income.
Citations:
EC (2021), Actualización Programa de Estabilidad 2021-2024 – https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/2021-spain-stability-programme_es.pdf
OECD (2021) Pensions at a Glance 2021 – https://www.oecd.org/spain/PAG2021-ESP.pdf
Ley 21/2021, de 28 de diciembre, de garantía del poder adquisitivo de las pensiones y de otras medidas de refuerzo de la sostenibilidad financiera y social del _istema público de pensiones. https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2021-21652#:~:text=A%2D2021%2D21652-,Ley%2021%2F2021%2C%20de%2028%20de%20diciembre%2C%20de%20garant%C3%ADa,a%20165113%20(30%20p%C3%A1gs.%20)
Graph View
How effectively do policies support the integration of migrants into society?
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9
9
Cultural, education and social policies effectively support the integration of migrants into society.
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6
7
6
Cultural, education and social policies seek to integrate migrants into society, but have failed to do so effectively.
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4
3
4
3
Cultural, education and social policies do not focus on integrating migrants into society.
2
1
1
Cultural, education and social policies segregate migrant communities from the majority society.
Spain ranks 11th out of 38 Western democracies in the latest available edition of the Migrant Integration Policy Index, and is particularly progressive regarding the issues of family reunions and permanent residence. Most immigrants are first-generation, as in the case of Latin Americans, share a common language and cultural links with the native population. In 2020, the smallest interannual increase (137,120 people, or 2%) in immigration was observed since 2016. Only 8% of all immigrants that arrived in Spain in 2020 did so illegally.
Even though the government has taken little action in this area, the population’s degree of tolerance toward immigrants is striking. In a survey conducted in September 2021 by CIS, the country’s official statistics agency, only 4.8% of Spaniards listed immigration as one of their main concerns (as compared to 15.6% in September 2018). Violent attacks on immigrant groups are very rare, even in comparison to other EU member states. However, the nativist radical right-wing Vox has obtained seats in the national parliament and in regional parliaments since 2018/2019. Vox voters are less inclined to believe that immigration is good for the country.
Nevertheless, there is no active policy that has the objective of integrating economic migrants and asylum-seekers into Spanish society. Living conditions in the Foreigner Internment Centers (Centros de Internamiento de Extranjeros) at the Ceuta and Melilla enclaves and on the Canary Islands are a persistent matter of concern. The delays in accessing the asylum procedure and the lack of transfers to the mainland have resulted in numerous cases of destitution and homelessness. In October 2020, the minister of inclusion, social security and migration reported that there were around 8,000 asylum-seekers waiting to be assigned a reception place. In two decisions issued in July 2020, the Supreme Court confirmed the right of asylum-seekers to move freely across Spanish territory.
Although the Spanish government supported the EU system for the reallocation of refugees, the number of refugees accepted by Spain during 2021 remained very low.
In September 2021, the interior and migration ministers of Spain, Italy, Greece, Cyprus and Malta held a summit in Malaga in which they agreed to call on the European Union to ensure that the common migration policy revolves around the equitable distribution of responsibility among member states, with prevention at the source as a priority, and with adequate financial instruments used.
In October 2021, the Council of Ministers (which since 2019 has included a Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration) approved a change in the regulation of the Law on Foreigners (Ley de Extranjería) that removed many of the barriers that had prevented minors and young migrants migrating to Spain alone from living and working legally. Between the time the measure came into force in November and the end of December 2021, at least 4,500 petitions were processed. In December, the government signed an agreement with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) providing €4 million for resettlement, return and inclusion projects.
Citations:
Asylum Information Database (2021), Country Report: Spain – https://asylumineurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/AIDA-ES_2020update.pdf
Real Decreto 903/2021, de 19 de octubre, por el que se modifica el Reglamento de la Ley Orgánica 4/2000, sobre derechos y libertades de los extranjeros en España y su integración social, tras su reforma por Ley Orgánica 2/2009, aprobado por el Real Decreto 557/2011, de 20 de abril.
Even though the government has taken little action in this area, the population’s degree of tolerance toward immigrants is striking. In a survey conducted in September 2021 by CIS, the country’s official statistics agency, only 4.8% of Spaniards listed immigration as one of their main concerns (as compared to 15.6% in September 2018). Violent attacks on immigrant groups are very rare, even in comparison to other EU member states. However, the nativist radical right-wing Vox has obtained seats in the national parliament and in regional parliaments since 2018/2019. Vox voters are less inclined to believe that immigration is good for the country.
Nevertheless, there is no active policy that has the objective of integrating economic migrants and asylum-seekers into Spanish society. Living conditions in the Foreigner Internment Centers (Centros de Internamiento de Extranjeros) at the Ceuta and Melilla enclaves and on the Canary Islands are a persistent matter of concern. The delays in accessing the asylum procedure and the lack of transfers to the mainland have resulted in numerous cases of destitution and homelessness. In October 2020, the minister of inclusion, social security and migration reported that there were around 8,000 asylum-seekers waiting to be assigned a reception place. In two decisions issued in July 2020, the Supreme Court confirmed the right of asylum-seekers to move freely across Spanish territory.
Although the Spanish government supported the EU system for the reallocation of refugees, the number of refugees accepted by Spain during 2021 remained very low.
In September 2021, the interior and migration ministers of Spain, Italy, Greece, Cyprus and Malta held a summit in Malaga in which they agreed to call on the European Union to ensure that the common migration policy revolves around the equitable distribution of responsibility among member states, with prevention at the source as a priority, and with adequate financial instruments used.
In October 2021, the Council of Ministers (which since 2019 has included a Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration) approved a change in the regulation of the Law on Foreigners (Ley de Extranjería) that removed many of the barriers that had prevented minors and young migrants migrating to Spain alone from living and working legally. Between the time the measure came into force in November and the end of December 2021, at least 4,500 petitions were processed. In December, the government signed an agreement with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) providing €4 million for resettlement, return and inclusion projects.
Citations:
Asylum Information Database (2021), Country Report: Spain – https://asylumineurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/AIDA-ES_2020update.pdf
Real Decreto 903/2021, de 19 de octubre, por el que se modifica el Reglamento de la Ley Orgánica 4/2000, sobre derechos y libertades de los extranjeros en España y su integración social, tras su reforma por Ley Orgánica 2/2009, aprobado por el Real Decreto 557/2011, de 20 de abril.
Graph View
How effectively does internal security policy protect citizens against security risks?
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Internal security policy protects citizens against security risks very effectively.
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7
6
7
6
Internal security policy protects citizens against security risks more or less effectively.
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3
4
3
Internal security policy does not effectively protect citizens against security risks.
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1
1
Internal security policy exacerbates the security risks.
Compared with other OECD countries, Spain performs quite satisfactorily in protecting citizens against security risks and public confidence in the police force is high. The official data shows that violent crimes rate is one of the lowest in the world, although the figures are somewhat higher for assaults or muggings. As the terrorist attacks in Madrid in 2004 and Barcelona in 2017 showed, the government of Spain and its citizens are a principal target of jihadist extremism.
Although the share of police officers per capita is among the highest in the world, and the intelligence and police communities have demonstrated their capabilities in terms of fighting terrorism, poor coordination mechanisms among the police forces at the local, regional and national level, as well as politicized intergovernmental relations, reduce the efficiency of the system. During the Catalan conflict, questions of loyalty and trust in the Catalan regional police force were raised. In addition, the police services have experienced increasing politicization since Vox began promoting the idea that the left-wing executive is tightening control over police forces.
The Organic Law on Citizens’ Security (Organic Law 4/2015), also known as the “gag law,” contains a number of open-ended provisions that entrust the police with broad powers but do not indicate in which situations these powers may or may not be used. The law also defines certain administrative offenses in an equally vague manner. Most of these issues have been addressed in two judgments of the Constitutional Court of Spain, rendered on 19 November 2020 and of 28 January 2021. In 2019, the PSOE-government announced a reform of the “gag law.” In January 2022, the reformed law, which incorporates lessons from the coronavirus pandemic and eliminates some of the measure’s most contentious parts, was still being negotiated in the parliament. For example, the article that banned protests in the immediate vicinity of Congress or Senate buildings had been eliminated. The reform proposal also included a removal of the ban on taking photos of law enforcement personnel while they are performing any action.
Citations:
Council of Europe (2021), Opinion on the Citizens’ Security Law, Adopted by the Venice Commission at its 126 th Plenary Session – http://www.cepc.gob.es/docs/default-source/comisionveneciadoc/20210407citizens-security-law.pdf?sfvrsn=0
Euronews (2021), Spanish police protest plan to reform unconstitutional “gag law” https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/27/spanish-police-protest-plan-to-reform-unconstitutional-gag-law
Although the share of police officers per capita is among the highest in the world, and the intelligence and police communities have demonstrated their capabilities in terms of fighting terrorism, poor coordination mechanisms among the police forces at the local, regional and national level, as well as politicized intergovernmental relations, reduce the efficiency of the system. During the Catalan conflict, questions of loyalty and trust in the Catalan regional police force were raised. In addition, the police services have experienced increasing politicization since Vox began promoting the idea that the left-wing executive is tightening control over police forces.
The Organic Law on Citizens’ Security (Organic Law 4/2015), also known as the “gag law,” contains a number of open-ended provisions that entrust the police with broad powers but do not indicate in which situations these powers may or may not be used. The law also defines certain administrative offenses in an equally vague manner. Most of these issues have been addressed in two judgments of the Constitutional Court of Spain, rendered on 19 November 2020 and of 28 January 2021. In 2019, the PSOE-government announced a reform of the “gag law.” In January 2022, the reformed law, which incorporates lessons from the coronavirus pandemic and eliminates some of the measure’s most contentious parts, was still being negotiated in the parliament. For example, the article that banned protests in the immediate vicinity of Congress or Senate buildings had been eliminated. The reform proposal also included a removal of the ban on taking photos of law enforcement personnel while they are performing any action.
Citations:
Council of Europe (2021), Opinion on the Citizens’ Security Law, Adopted by the Venice Commission at its 126 th Plenary Session – http://www.cepc.gob.es/docs/default-source/comisionveneciadoc/20210407citizens-security-law.pdf?sfvrsn=0
Euronews (2021), Spanish police protest plan to reform unconstitutional “gag law” https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/27/spanish-police-protest-plan-to-reform-unconstitutional-gag-law
Graph View
To what extent does the government demonstrate an active and coherent commitment to promoting equal socioeconomic opportunities in low- and middle-income countries?
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9
9
The government actively and coherently engages in international efforts to promote equal socioeconomic opportunities in low- and middle-income countries. It frequently demonstrates initiative and responsibility, and acts as an agenda-setter.
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6
7
6
The government actively engages in international efforts to promote equal socioeconomic opportunities in low- and middle-income countries. However, some of its measures or policies lack coherence.
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3
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3
The government shows limited engagement in international efforts to promote equal socioeconomic opportunities in low- and middle-income countries. Many of its measures or policies lack coherence.
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1
1
The government does not contribute (and often undermines) efforts to promote equal socioeconomic opportunities in low- and middle-income countries.
Budget cuts severely restricted the funding available for policies and instruments designed to enhance Spain’s influence abroad. Since 2018, the government has made development assistance and the 2030 Agenda a much greater political priority. A cross-cutting, coordinating structure covering the entire public administration was created within the government. The institutional architecture for this area centers on the Vice Presidency for Social Rights and 2030 Agenda. This vice president has a 2030 Agenda secretary of state that presides over a delegate commission (in which all Spanish ministers participate). Besides this, a new Long-term Prospective Commission (depending on the presidency) has been set up. The government’s aim is to increase official development assistance to 0.5% of GNI by 2023. The 2022 national budget raised funds for cooperation and development by 60%.
Spain has been displaying its commitment to development assistance, especially during the COVID-19 crisis. The country’s foreign development agencies approved an extra $2 billion budget for foreign aid in 2020 and 2021, announcing that they will prioritize global health and epidemic prevention in the development cooperation policy.
On 11 January 2022 the Council of Ministers presented the Draft Bill on Cooperation for Sustainable Development and Global Solidarity, which will reform the current one, which has been in force since 1997. The new law is aligned with the 2030 Agenda, the Paris climate agreements and other international treaties.
Citations:
Donor Tracker: Spain
http://donortracker.org/country/spain
Government of Spain(2019), Action Plan for 2030 Agenda Implementation. https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/consejodeministros/referencias/Paginas/2018/refc20180629.aspx#AGENDA
Spain has been displaying its commitment to development assistance, especially during the COVID-19 crisis. The country’s foreign development agencies approved an extra $2 billion budget for foreign aid in 2020 and 2021, announcing that they will prioritize global health and epidemic prevention in the development cooperation policy.
On 11 January 2022 the Council of Ministers presented the Draft Bill on Cooperation for Sustainable Development and Global Solidarity, which will reform the current one, which has been in force since 1997. The new law is aligned with the 2030 Agenda, the Paris climate agreements and other international treaties.
Citations:
Donor Tracker: Spain
http://donortracker.org/country/spain
Government of Spain(2019), Action Plan for 2030 Agenda Implementation. https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/consejodeministros/referencias/Paginas/2018/refc20180629.aspx#AGENDA