Executive Capacity
#36Key Findings
Despite its increasingly powerful central government, Turkey falls into the bottom ranks internationally (rank 36) with regard to executive capacity. Its score on this measure has declined by 1.8 points since 2014.
The newly established presidential model is highly centralized. There are 16 line ministries and nine policy councils. The head of strategy and budget is a part of the Presidential Office, while a head of administrative affairs coordinates with public institutions. Informal groups of senior party members develop proposals in consultation with experts and ministers.
RIAs processes are rarely followed. Ex post monitoring is not systematically performed. Top policymakers tend to consult only with pro-government actors. A number of serious communication failures emerged during the pandemic and economic crisis. COVID-19 measures were implemented swiftly and efficiently, but economic policy, particularly regarding the currency, has been less efficient.
President Erdoğan is in control of the government and governing party, and actively intervenes in appointments and electoral decisions. The central government is the major source of funding for local governments. Trustees have been appointed in numerous municipalities in place of elected mayors. Regulations are often implemented so as to benefit business figures close to the ruling party.
The newly established presidential model is highly centralized. There are 16 line ministries and nine policy councils. The head of strategy and budget is a part of the Presidential Office, while a head of administrative affairs coordinates with public institutions. Informal groups of senior party members develop proposals in consultation with experts and ministers.
RIAs processes are rarely followed. Ex post monitoring is not systematically performed. Top policymakers tend to consult only with pro-government actors. A number of serious communication failures emerged during the pandemic and economic crisis. COVID-19 measures were implemented swiftly and efficiently, but economic policy, particularly regarding the currency, has been less efficient.
President Erdoğan is in control of the government and governing party, and actively intervenes in appointments and electoral decisions. The central government is the major source of funding for local governments. Trustees have been appointed in numerous municipalities in place of elected mayors. Regulations are often implemented so as to benefit business figures close to the ruling party.
Graph View
Graph View
How much influence do strategic planning units and bodies have on government decision-making?
10
9
9
Strategic planning units and bodies take a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions, and they exercise strong influence on government decision-making.
8
7
6
7
6
Strategic planning units and bodies take a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions. Their influence on government decision-making is systematic but limited in issue scope or depth of impact.
5
4
3
4
3
Strategic planning units and bodies take a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions. Occasionally, they exert some influence on government decision-making.
2
1
1
In practice, there are no units and bodies taking a long-term view of policy challenges and viable solutions.
With Presidential Decree No. 13, the central harmonization function regarding strategic management components such as strategic planning, development of a performance program and production of the annual report is carried out by the Strategy and Budget Department. Previously these tasks had been the responsibility of different ministries. Strategic plans are prepared in public administrations within the scope of the central government, social security institutions, SOEs, special provincial administrations, and municipalities with populations of 50,000 or more. They are implemented through performance programs and monitored through annual reports. As of October 2021, a total of 49 strategic plans had been evaluated by the Strategy and Budget Department, 13 of which were developed by the central public administration, 35 by state universities and one by an SOE.
Under the new presidential system of government, the head of Strategy and Budget is affiliated with the Presidential Office. The 2021 Annual Plan of the Presidency emphasized that efforts are underway to strengthen and align the budget with the policies contained in the government’s main policy documents and the objectives and targets of the strategic plans in a holistic approach. The results of these attempts remain to be seen. There are no cumulative statistics on the frequency of meetings between strategic planning staff members and government heads. In general, these meetings are held once a year and during budget negotiations.
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2022 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. http://www.sp.gov.tr/upload/xSPTemelBelge/files/AXe9Q+2022-Yili-Cumhurbaskanligi-Yillik-Programi-26102021.pdf
Under the new presidential system of government, the head of Strategy and Budget is affiliated with the Presidential Office. The 2021 Annual Plan of the Presidency emphasized that efforts are underway to strengthen and align the budget with the policies contained in the government’s main policy documents and the objectives and targets of the strategic plans in a holistic approach. The results of these attempts remain to be seen. There are no cumulative statistics on the frequency of meetings between strategic planning staff members and government heads. In general, these meetings are held once a year and during budget negotiations.
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2022 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. http://www.sp.gov.tr/upload/xSPTemelBelge/files/AXe9Q+2022-Yili-Cumhurbaskanligi-Yillik-Programi-26102021.pdf
Does the government regularly take into account advice from non-governmental experts during decision-making?
10
9
9
In almost all cases, the government transparently consults with non-governmental experts in the early stages of government decision-making.
8
7
6
7
6
For major political projects, the government transparently consults with non-governmental experts in the early stages of government decision-making.
5
4
3
4
3
In some cases, the government transparently consults with non-governmental experts in the early stages of government decision-making.
2
1
1
The government does not consult with non-governmental experts, or existing consultations lack transparency entirely and/or are exclusively pro forma.
The spectrum of communication with outside experts is narrowing, as the government has begun to recruit experts that will provide alternative but not critical opinions on relevant issues of public policy.
Public institutions’ annual activity reports do not indicate how often expert opinions have been requested. Selected groups of scholars participate in the preparation of special expert reports related to the national development plans. The councils established under the Presidential Office are entitled to prepare reports on certain public issues and incorporate the opinions of the ministries, relevant public entities as well as other experts.
Citations:
Üstüner, Y., & Yavuz, N. (2018). Turkey’s Public Administration Today: An Overview and Appraisal. International Journal of Public Administration, 41(10), 820-831.
Public institutions’ annual activity reports do not indicate how often expert opinions have been requested. Selected groups of scholars participate in the preparation of special expert reports related to the national development plans. The councils established under the Presidential Office are entitled to prepare reports on certain public issues and incorporate the opinions of the ministries, relevant public entities as well as other experts.
Citations:
Üstüner, Y., & Yavuz, N. (2018). Turkey’s Public Administration Today: An Overview and Appraisal. International Journal of Public Administration, 41(10), 820-831.
Graph View
Does the government office / prime minister’s office (GO / PMO) have the expertise to evaluate ministerial draft bills according to the government’s priorities?
10
9
9
The GO / PMO provides regular, independent evaluations of draft bills for the cabinet / prime minister. These assessments are guided exclusively by the government’s priorities.
8
7
6
7
6
The GO / PMO evaluates most draft bills according to the government’s priorities.
5
4
3
4
3
The GO / PMO can rely on some sectoral policy expertise but does not evaluate draft bills.
2
1
1
The GO / PMO does not have any sectoral policy expertise. Its role is limited to collecting, registering and circulating documents submitted for cabinet meetings.
With the transition to the presidential system in 2017, the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) was abolished. In addition to a vice-president, the head of administrative affairs was established. His or her main task is to coordinate between public institutions and organizations and examine the congruity of laws adopted by the parliament and draft legislation prepared by government institutions with the constitution, current legislation, presidential decrees, and government program. The General Directorate of Laws and Legislation deals with presidential decrees, international agreements, suitability of legislation, draft regulations, etc. There is no available official data about the number and functions of presidential personnel.
Presidential Decree No. 1 established nine policy councils (including the Local Governing Council, Social Policies Council, and the Health and Food Policies Council) to improve the president’s capacity for public policymaking. The councils will report to the president by taking the views of ministries, civil society, and sector representatives and experts, and follow the policies and developments implemented. It will also give opinions to public institutions and organizations in their fields.
Citations:
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
Presidential Decree No. 1 established nine policy councils (including the Local Governing Council, Social Policies Council, and the Health and Food Policies Council) to improve the president’s capacity for public policymaking. The councils will report to the president by taking the views of ministries, civil society, and sector representatives and experts, and follow the policies and developments implemented. It will also give opinions to public institutions and organizations in their fields.
Citations:
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
To what extent do line ministries involve the government office/prime minister’s office in the preparation of policy proposals?
10
9
9
There are inter-related capacities for coordination between GO/PMO and line ministries.
8
7
6
7
6
The GO/PMO is regularly briefed on new developments affecting the preparation of policy proposals.
5
4
3
4
3
Consultation is rather formal and focuses on technical and drafting issues.
2
1
1
Consultation occurs only after proposals are fully drafted as laws.
Currently, there are 16 line ministries and nine policy councils, which develop a long-term strategic vision and report on the progress of governmental activities. The Ministry of Development, which has been the primary consultative body for preparing policies according to the government’s program, was abolished. In addition, four offices were established: finance, investment, digital transformation, and human resources. In addition, six departments are attached to the presidency: Chief of Staff, Religious Affairs, National Security Council, Defense Industry, State Supervision Council, Communication and Strategy, and Budget Unit. These departments were established to promote efficiency and coordination in the executive.
Citations:
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
Citations:
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
How effectively do ministerial or cabinet committees coordinate cabinet proposals?
10
9
9
The vast majority of cabinet proposals are reviewed and coordinated first by committees.
8
7
6
7
6
Most cabinet proposals are reviewed and coordinated by committees, in particular proposals of political or strategic importance.
5
4
3
4
3
There is little review or coordination of cabinet proposals by committees.
2
1
1
There is no review or coordination of cabinet proposals by committees. Or: There is no ministerial or cabinet committee.
Until the PMO was abolished in July 2018, the Better Regulation Group within the PMO ensured coordination among related agencies and institutions and improved the process of creating regulations. In addition, the government has created committees – such as the anti-terror commission under the Ministry of Interior, which includes officials from the ministries of Foreign Affairs and Justice, as well as other security departments. These are composed of ministers, experts, bureaucrats, and representatives of other bureaucratic bodies (such as those on legislation techniques, legislation management, and administrative simplification, and regulatory impact analysis) in highly important policy areas or when important or frequently raised issues were under consideration.
As of 1 August 2018, several coordination committees and boards, presidential policy councils, and other public institutions were established in association with the presidency. During the review period, observers have publicly pointed to the need for coordination mechanisms between the ministries, parliament and the governing party.
Citations:
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
As of 1 August 2018, several coordination committees and boards, presidential policy councils, and other public institutions were established in association with the presidency. During the review period, observers have publicly pointed to the need for coordination mechanisms between the ministries, parliament and the governing party.
Citations:
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
How effectively do ministry officials/civil servants coordinate policy proposals?
10
9
9
Most policy proposals are effectively coordinated by ministry officials/civil servants.
8
7
6
7
6
Many policy proposals are effectively coordinated by ministry officials/civil servants.
5
4
3
4
3
There is some coordination of policy proposals by ministry officials/civil servants.
2
1
1
There is no or hardly any coordination of policy proposals by ministry officials/civil servants.
Following the introduction of the presidential system, Decree No. 703 abolished the offices of an undersecretary, deputy undersecretary, and central governor. Instead, deputy ministers, who usually come from the private sector and are politically well-connected to the government, acquired the highest position within a hierarchical structure. In addition, some traditionally strong institutions were either weakened or abolished. The State Planning Organization, which was one of the most respected institutions in Turkey, was abolished. Instead, the Ministry of Development was founded. Similarly, the Ministry of Finance, which had a traditionally strong bureaucratic structure, was subject to severe restructuring.
Citations:
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/2022-Yili-Cumhurbaskanligi-Yillik-Programi-26102021.pdf
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
Citations:
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/2022-Yili-Cumhurbaskanligi-Yillik-Programi-26102021.pdf
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
How effectively do informal coordination mechanisms complement formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination?
10
9
9
Informal coordination mechanisms generally support formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
8
7
6
7
6
In most cases, informal coordination mechanisms support formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
5
4
3
4
3
In some cases, informal coordination mechanisms support formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
2
1
1
Informal coordination mechanisms tend to undermine rather than complement formal mechanisms of interministerial coordination.
Informal bodies, which are usually made up of senior party members and their networks, are typically used to sketch the framework of an issue in consultation with experts, while civil servants develop proposals, and finally, the upper administrative echelons finalize the policy. The higher levels of the ruling party in particular, in cooperation with ministers who have considerable experience in their fields, continue to form a tight network and contribute significantly to policy preparation.
During the pandemic, there were some irregular meetings between some key ministers, including the minister of health, the minister of interior and the minister of transportation. The High Advisory Board, which is composed of strong AKP figures including Köksal Toptan and Cemil Çiçek, was established in 2019. The members of the board are elected by the president from among the former presidents or vice presidents of the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Citations:
M. Turan, “Türkiye’nin Yeni Yönetim Düzeni: Cumhurbaşkanlığı Hükümet Sistemi,” Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(3), 2018: 42-91. http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/524784
During the pandemic, there were some irregular meetings between some key ministers, including the minister of health, the minister of interior and the minister of transportation. The High Advisory Board, which is composed of strong AKP figures including Köksal Toptan and Cemil Çiçek, was established in 2019. The members of the board are elected by the president from among the former presidents or vice presidents of the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Citations:
M. Turan, “Türkiye’nin Yeni Yönetim Düzeni: Cumhurbaşkanlığı Hükümet Sistemi,” Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(3), 2018: 42-91. http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/524784
How extensively and effectively are digital technologies used to support interministerial coordination (in policy development and monitoring)?
10
9
9
The government uses digital technologies extensively and effectively to support interministerial coordination.
8
7
6
7
6
The government uses digital technologies in most cases and somewhat effectively to support interministerial coordination.
5
4
3
4
3
The government uses digital technologies to a lesser degree and with limited effects to support interministerial coordination.
2
1
1
The government makes no substantial use of digital technologies to support interministerial coordination.
The Office of Digital Transformation, which is affiliated with the Presidency, is entitled to lead public policies and strategies targeting digital transformation and e-government. It is also tasked with communicating the delivery of services, improving inter-agency cooperation and coordination in these areas, all in accordance with the goal set by the president.
No information is available concerning mechanisms facilitating interministerial coordination. However, the closed “kamunet” network for more secure data exchange between public institutions and organizations has been established as part of an effort to reduce cybersecurity risks.
Turkey is a member of the e-Europe+ initiative, while the e-Transformation Turkey Project was introduced by a prime ministerial circular of December 2003. In 2004, e-government applications were introduced into public administration following the adoption of e-signatures. In 2008, a prime ministerial circular stated that the electronic document management standards and registered electronic mail (KEP) projects were being implemented
Citations:
Tamtürk, E. (2017). Kamu Yönetiminde Elektronik Belge Yönetim Sistemi. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(3), 851-863.
No information is available concerning mechanisms facilitating interministerial coordination. However, the closed “kamunet” network for more secure data exchange between public institutions and organizations has been established as part of an effort to reduce cybersecurity risks.
Turkey is a member of the e-Europe+ initiative, while the e-Transformation Turkey Project was introduced by a prime ministerial circular of December 2003. In 2004, e-government applications were introduced into public administration following the adoption of e-signatures. In 2008, a prime ministerial circular stated that the electronic document management standards and registered electronic mail (KEP) projects were being implemented
Citations:
Tamtürk, E. (2017). Kamu Yönetiminde Elektronik Belge Yönetim Sistemi. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(3), 851-863.
Graph View
To what extent does the government assess the potential impacts of existing and prepared legal acts (regulatory impact assessments, RIA)?
10
9
9
RIA are applied to all new regulations and to existing regulations which are characterized by complex impact paths. RIA methodology is guided by common minimum standards.
8
7
6
7
6
RIA are applied systematically to most new regulations. RIA methodology is guided by common minimum standards.
5
4
3
4
3
RIA are applied in some cases. There is no common RIA methodology guaranteeing common minimum standards.
2
1
1
RIA are not applied or do not exist.
The legal requirement to produce medium-term cost estimates and fiscal impact assessments for draft policies and laws continues to be ignored. Regulatory impact assessments (RIA) are a formal exercise but are neither sent to parliament nor published. The legal quality is mainly shaped by the “By-Law on Principles and Procedures of Drafting Legislation” decree passed in February 2006. The law involves provisions relating to stakeholder engagement as well as RIA. The Prime Ministerial Circular on RIA, issued in April 2007, further specified guidelines, roles, and responsibilities including for the Better Regulation Group within the Prime Ministry. Since then, the completion of an RIA has been required for all new legislation (laws, decrees, and other regulatory procedures), excluding issues relating to national security, the draft budget or final accounts (under Article 24 of Regulation 4821 on the Procedure and Principles of Preparing Legislation, 12 December 2005).
Several chambers of industry conducted EU-funded RIA projects. The EU Regulation on the Export and Import of Harmful Chemicals Technical Support Project for Implementation was conducted by several Turkish chambers of industry, including Balıkesir, Kayseri, and Kocaeli. The EU also funded the Technical Assistance for Capacity-Building and Support to the Preparation of an RIA for Decoupled Agricultural Support project.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Several chambers of industry conducted EU-funded RIA projects. The EU Regulation on the Export and Import of Harmful Chemicals Technical Support Project for Implementation was conducted by several Turkish chambers of industry, including Balıkesir, Kayseri, and Kocaeli. The EU also funded the Technical Assistance for Capacity-Building and Support to the Preparation of an RIA for Decoupled Agricultural Support project.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Does the RIA process ensure participation, transparency and quality evaluation?
10
9
9
RIA analyses consistently involve stakeholders by means of consultation or collaboration, results are transparently communicated to the public and assessments are effectively evaluated by an independent body on a regular basis.
8
7
6
7
6
The RIA process displays deficiencies with regard to one of the three objectives.
5
4
3
4
3
The RIA process displays deficiencies with regard to two of the three objectives.
2
1
1
RIA analyses do not exist or the RIA process fails to achieve any of the three objectives of process quality.
During the period under review, the RIA requirement did not help improve the quality of proposed government legislation. Instead, the government simply organized more preparatory workshops and projects with EU support. Despite regulations adopted to encourage administrative simplification in April 2012, the introduction of RIAs has not improved the quality of government legislation, and RIA processes are only rarely followed. According to the Regulation on the Procedures and Principles of Legislation (2006), a full RIA is required for legislation that would involve costs exceeding TRY 30 million, and a partial RIA is required for legislation that would involve costs below this amount.
The By-Law on Principles and Procedures of Drafting Legislation recommends full RIAs when the estimated cost of draft laws or decrees are above TRY 10 million or upon the request of the prime minister irrespective of its costs, if it is demanded by citizens or business.
Citations:
M. Önder. 2017. “Mevzuat Yapımında Düzenleyici Etki Analizi ve Uygulama Sorunları,” Türk İdare Dergisi, 89 (485): 771-810.
OECD. 2015. OECD Regulatory Policy Outlook 2015 (Turkey). https://www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/Turkey-web.pdf
F. Karcı-Sarı. 2017. Düzenleyici Etki Analizi ve Uygulama Örnekleri, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara.
The By-Law on Principles and Procedures of Drafting Legislation recommends full RIAs when the estimated cost of draft laws or decrees are above TRY 10 million or upon the request of the prime minister irrespective of its costs, if it is demanded by citizens or business.
Citations:
M. Önder. 2017. “Mevzuat Yapımında Düzenleyici Etki Analizi ve Uygulama Sorunları,” Türk İdare Dergisi, 89 (485): 771-810.
OECD. 2015. OECD Regulatory Policy Outlook 2015 (Turkey). https://www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/Turkey-web.pdf
F. Karcı-Sarı. 2017. Düzenleyici Etki Analizi ve Uygulama Örnekleri, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara.
Does the government conduct effective sustainability checks within the framework of RIA?
10
9
9
Sustainability checks are an integral part of every RIA; they draw on an exhaustive set of indicators (including social, economic, and environmental aspects of sustainability) and track impacts from the short- to long-term.
8
7
6
7
6
Sustainability checks lack one of the three criteria.
5
4
3
4
3
Sustainability checks lack two of the three criteria.
2
1
1
Sustainability checks do not exist or lack all three criteria.
In the past, the government has conducted several sustainability checks within its regulatory impact assessment (RIA) framework, for instance for the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive, the Habitat Directive, and the Discharge Directive. Within the scope of the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2030, a project to assess the current state of sustainability in Turkey was launched. However, the project has since been postponed indefinitely.
On the other hand, these examples refer to internationally sponsored projects and are not an indication of general administrative practice. Politicians and experts widely use the term “sustainability” in policy slogans, but there is no formally adopted sustainability strategy in Turkey. In 2016, The Coordination Board of Internal Audit published Performance Audit Guidelines for Public Sector Internal Auditors, which includes sustainability checks as a component in performance auditing. However, there is no information about RIA sustainability checks. While it does refer to sustainable growth and development, the Annual Presidential Program of 2021 does not mention sustainable policy or policymaking, except for a reference to financial sustainability.
Citations:
Gazibey, Y., Keser, A., & Gökmen, Y. (2014). Türkiye’de illerin sürdürülebilirlik açısından değerlendirilmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 69(3), 511-544.
On the other hand, these examples refer to internationally sponsored projects and are not an indication of general administrative practice. Politicians and experts widely use the term “sustainability” in policy slogans, but there is no formally adopted sustainability strategy in Turkey. In 2016, The Coordination Board of Internal Audit published Performance Audit Guidelines for Public Sector Internal Auditors, which includes sustainability checks as a component in performance auditing. However, there is no information about RIA sustainability checks. While it does refer to sustainable growth and development, the Annual Presidential Program of 2021 does not mention sustainable policy or policymaking, except for a reference to financial sustainability.
Citations:
Gazibey, Y., Keser, A., & Gökmen, Y. (2014). Türkiye’de illerin sürdürülebilirlik açısından değerlendirilmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 69(3), 511-544.
To what extent do government ministries regularly evaluate the effectiveness and/or efficiency of public policies and use results of evaluations for the revision of existing policies or development of new policies?
10
9
9
Ex post evaluations are carried out for all significant policies and are generally used for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
8
7
6
7
6
Ex post evaluations are carried out for most significant policies and are used for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
5
4
3
4
3
Ex post evaluations are rarely carried out for significant policies and are rarely used for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
2
1
1
Ex post evaluations are generally not carried out and do not play any relevant role for the revision of existing policies or the development of new policies.
Generally, public policy assessment institutions in Turkey lack knowledge regarding evidence-based instruments, both theoretically and practically. However, there are various social and political barriers to the evaluation of public policies. For example, the parliament and judiciary cannot effectively supervise and review executive actions. It is unlikely that an effective evaluation mechanism will be developed in the near future. However, there are a few academic studies that have evaluated certain public policies.
The Annual Presidential Program of 2021 makes references to monitoring and assessment but not to the systematic ex post evaluation of public policies. There are a few ex post analyses of public policies, mainly in the health sector, that address citizen/patient satisfaction, self-assessment, and the assessment of action plans. The EU Commission draws attention to the absence of systematic ex post monitoring and public reporting on the implementation of key government programs. There is also a lack of public scrutiny, which further limits accountability.
Citations:
Aydın, U. S. T. A. (2014). Yeni Kamu Yönetiminde Politikaların Değerlendirilmesi: Tipolojiler, Boyutlar ve Ölçütler. Sayıştay Dergisi, (94), 5-27.
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Gazete Duvar. “Duvar Arkası… ‘Beştepe’de iki insan boyu evrak bekliyor’.” August 16, 2020. https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/politika/2020/08/16/duvar-arkasi-bestepede-iki-insan-boyu-evrak-imza-bekliyor
The Annual Presidential Program of 2021 makes references to monitoring and assessment but not to the systematic ex post evaluation of public policies. There are a few ex post analyses of public policies, mainly in the health sector, that address citizen/patient satisfaction, self-assessment, and the assessment of action plans. The EU Commission draws attention to the absence of systematic ex post monitoring and public reporting on the implementation of key government programs. There is also a lack of public scrutiny, which further limits accountability.
Citations:
Aydın, U. S. T. A. (2014). Yeni Kamu Yönetiminde Politikaların Değerlendirilmesi: Tipolojiler, Boyutlar ve Ölçütler. Sayıştay Dergisi, (94), 5-27.
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Gazete Duvar. “Duvar Arkası… ‘Beştepe’de iki insan boyu evrak bekliyor’.” August 16, 2020. https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/politika/2020/08/16/duvar-arkasi-bestepede-iki-insan-boyu-evrak-imza-bekliyor
Graph View
Does the government consult with societal actors in a fair and pluralistic manner?
10
9
9
The government always consults with societal actors in a fair and pluralistic manner.
8
7
6
7
6
The government in most cases consults with societal actors in a fair and pluralistic manner.
5
4
3
4
3
The government does consult with societal actors, but mostly in an unfair and clientelistic manner.
2
1
1
The government rarely consults with any societal actors.
As of September 2020, Turkey was home to 320,206 associations, 121,999 of which were active. Among them, 38,160 concentrate their efforts on professional and social solidarity. A number of civil society organizations (e.g., TÜSIAD) together established the Delegation on Relations with the Parliament and Public Institutions, and organized several meetings with governmental representatives. In general, governmental authorities consider such activity to have a “slowing” effect on policymaking (e.g., on projects such as urban renewal or the planning of hydroelectric power plants).
Due to increasing political polarization during the review period, the government has increased restrictions on public access to policymaking processes and tended to consult only with pro-government actors. Unlike this tendency, the presidency’s 2021 Annual Program stresses that civil society organizations are crucial to policymaking and the implementation process. It also notes, however, that social platforms, civil initiatives and similar networks should also be considered. Opponents argue that the president follows a biased approach by preferentially including religious groups and organizations as active stakeholders in governmental processes.
The EU-funded public-civil society dialogue projects promote the participation of civil society in public decision-making. The relationships between government and society and parliament and society are not based on a systematic and structured consultation mechanism.
Citations:
İçişleri Bakanlığı. 2021. Derneklerin Faaliyet Alanlarına Göre Dağılımı. https://www.siviltoplum.gov.tr/derneklerin-faaliyet-alanlarina-gore-dagilimi
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/2022-Yili-Cumhurbaskanligi-Yillik-Programi-26102021.pdf
Due to increasing political polarization during the review period, the government has increased restrictions on public access to policymaking processes and tended to consult only with pro-government actors. Unlike this tendency, the presidency’s 2021 Annual Program stresses that civil society organizations are crucial to policymaking and the implementation process. It also notes, however, that social platforms, civil initiatives and similar networks should also be considered. Opponents argue that the president follows a biased approach by preferentially including religious groups and organizations as active stakeholders in governmental processes.
The EU-funded public-civil society dialogue projects promote the participation of civil society in public decision-making. The relationships between government and society and parliament and society are not based on a systematic and structured consultation mechanism.
Citations:
İçişleri Bakanlığı. 2021. Derneklerin Faaliyet Alanlarına Göre Dağılımı. https://www.siviltoplum.gov.tr/derneklerin-faaliyet-alanlarina-gore-dagilimi
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/2022-Yili-Cumhurbaskanligi-Yillik-Programi-26102021.pdf
Graph View
To what extent does the government achieve coherent communication?
10
9
9
Ministries are highly successful in aligning their communication with government strategy.
8
7
6
7
6
Ministries most of the time are highly successful in aligning their communication with government strategy.
5
4
3
4
3
Ministries occasionally issue public statements that contradict the public communication of other ministries or the government strategy.
2
1
1
Strategic communication planning does not exist; individual ministry statements regularly contradict each other. Messages are often not factually consistent with the government’s strategy.
The extensive restructuring of the executive branch has allowed for further centralization in policymaking through the president. Policy coordination among central government institutions has remained strong, but planning, monitoring, and reporting on whole-of-government performance remains inadequate. Rules of procedure are lacking in administrative decision-making processes, which undermines the parliamentary lawmaking process. Legislative development and policy formulation have not pursued an inclusive and evidence-based approach, but the responsibility for producing draft legislative proposals now lies with members of parliament, rather than with the government. The president has issued over one thousand executive decisions and 50 decrees, some on limited, others on extensive issues. Exactly how nine recently established presidential policy councils relate to the work of individual government departments is not clear.
During the review period, the biggest communication failure was related to the coronavirus pandemic. On 29 July 2020, following pressure from the Turkish Medical Association and opposition mayors, the Minister of Health confessed that the reported number of infected people had been changed to the number of patients showing symptoms. Another communication failure was related to the evaporation of the central bank’s $128 billion in gross reserves, for which officials gave unconvincing or contradictory explanations. The status of firefighting aircraft during an unprecedented forest fire in summer 2021 was another illustrative instance. It is still unknown how many firefighting aircraft Turkey has. Last but not least, there is no confidence in TURKSTAT figures, most notably relating to inflation and labor force numbers. According to Enag, an independent institution, the the annualized rate of inflation as measured by the consumer price index for November 2021 was 58.6%, while TURKSTAT reported it as only 21.3%.
Citations:
Birgün. “AKP’den ‘128 milyar dolar nerede?’ sorusuna bir çelişkili yanıt daha,” October 29, 2021. https://www.birgun.net/haber/akp-den-128-milyar-dolar-nerede-sorusuna-bir-celiskili-yanit-daha-363802
Bila, F. “Filomuz var mı yok mu?,” August 11, 2021. https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/fikret-bila/filomuz-var-mi-yok-mu,32060
Karar. “Enflasyon rakamlarında büyük çelişki: Sadece 5 aylık rakam yüzde 16,” June 3, 2021. https://www.karar.com/ekonomi-haberleri/enflasyon-rakamlarindaki-bilmece-vatandas-hangi-verilere-inanacak-1619207
Cumhuriyet. “Çelişkili veriler Meclis gündemine taşındı: TÜİK, milyonlarca işsizi rakamlar içinde kaybetmeye çalışıyor,” August 14, 2021. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/celiskili-veriler-meclis-gundemine-tasindi-tuik-milyonlarca-issizi-rakamlar-icinde-kaybetmeye-calisiyor-1860405
Enagrup. “Aylık Enflasyon Haber Bülteni “, December 3, 2021. https://enagrup.org/bulten/2021kasb.pdf?v1
During the review period, the biggest communication failure was related to the coronavirus pandemic. On 29 July 2020, following pressure from the Turkish Medical Association and opposition mayors, the Minister of Health confessed that the reported number of infected people had been changed to the number of patients showing symptoms. Another communication failure was related to the evaporation of the central bank’s $128 billion in gross reserves, for which officials gave unconvincing or contradictory explanations. The status of firefighting aircraft during an unprecedented forest fire in summer 2021 was another illustrative instance. It is still unknown how many firefighting aircraft Turkey has. Last but not least, there is no confidence in TURKSTAT figures, most notably relating to inflation and labor force numbers. According to Enag, an independent institution, the the annualized rate of inflation as measured by the consumer price index for November 2021 was 58.6%, while TURKSTAT reported it as only 21.3%.
Citations:
Birgün. “AKP’den ‘128 milyar dolar nerede?’ sorusuna bir çelişkili yanıt daha,” October 29, 2021. https://www.birgun.net/haber/akp-den-128-milyar-dolar-nerede-sorusuna-bir-celiskili-yanit-daha-363802
Bila, F. “Filomuz var mı yok mu?,” August 11, 2021. https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/fikret-bila/filomuz-var-mi-yok-mu,32060
Karar. “Enflasyon rakamlarında büyük çelişki: Sadece 5 aylık rakam yüzde 16,” June 3, 2021. https://www.karar.com/ekonomi-haberleri/enflasyon-rakamlarindaki-bilmece-vatandas-hangi-verilere-inanacak-1619207
Cumhuriyet. “Çelişkili veriler Meclis gündemine taşındı: TÜİK, milyonlarca işsizi rakamlar içinde kaybetmeye çalışıyor,” August 14, 2021. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/celiskili-veriler-meclis-gundemine-tasindi-tuik-milyonlarca-issizi-rakamlar-icinde-kaybetmeye-calisiyor-1860405
Enagrup. “Aylık Enflasyon Haber Bülteni “, December 3, 2021. https://enagrup.org/bulten/2021kasb.pdf?v1
Graph View
To what extent can the government achieve its own policy objectives?
10
9
9
The government can largely implement its own policy objectives.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is partly successful in implementing its policy objectives or can implement some of its policy objectives.
5
4
3
4
3
The government partly fails to implement its objectives or fails to implement several policy objectives.
2
1
1
The government largely fails to implement its policy objectives.
Measures relating to the COVID-19 pandemic were implemented rather swiftly due to Turkey’s transition to a presidential system in 2018, which gave the executive more power than the legislature or the judiciary. Throughout the pandemic, the constructive stance of the oppositional parties also facilitated the implementation of coronavirus-related measures.
Despite the success in containing the pandemic, governmental inefficiency has been widespread, especially in relation to the economy. Economic activity in the first nine months following the implementation of the government’s annual economic objectives varied sharply from the official budget and the 2017 – 2019 medium-term fiscal plan forecasts. The recent devaluation of the Turkish lira increased the fiscal burden. Greater fiscal discipline is foreseen in the 2020 – 2022 medium-term fiscal plan. The inflation targets by the central bank have been subject to revisions on many occasions.
The government’s long-standing investment strategy, which is based on the build-operate-transfer model and includes urban hospitals, bridges, connecting highways and airports, has effectively created the potential for huge deficits, as the revenues for these projects are guaranteed by the treasury.
Citations:
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. Orta Vadeli Program (2022-2024). https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Orta-Vadeli-Program-2022-2024.pdf
Bloomberg. “Merkez Bankası 2021 enflasyon tahminini yükseltti. July 29, 2021. https://www.bloomberght.com/tcmb-3-enflasyon-raporunu-acikliyor-2284847
Despite the success in containing the pandemic, governmental inefficiency has been widespread, especially in relation to the economy. Economic activity in the first nine months following the implementation of the government’s annual economic objectives varied sharply from the official budget and the 2017 – 2019 medium-term fiscal plan forecasts. The recent devaluation of the Turkish lira increased the fiscal burden. Greater fiscal discipline is foreseen in the 2020 – 2022 medium-term fiscal plan. The inflation targets by the central bank have been subject to revisions on many occasions.
The government’s long-standing investment strategy, which is based on the build-operate-transfer model and includes urban hospitals, bridges, connecting highways and airports, has effectively created the potential for huge deficits, as the revenues for these projects are guaranteed by the treasury.
Citations:
Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. Orta Vadeli Program (2022-2024). https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Orta-Vadeli-Program-2022-2024.pdf
Bloomberg. “Merkez Bankası 2021 enflasyon tahminini yükseltti. July 29, 2021. https://www.bloomberght.com/tcmb-3-enflasyon-raporunu-acikliyor-2284847
To what extent does the organization of government provide mechanisms to ensure that ministers implement the government’s program?
10
9
9
The organization of government successfully provides strong mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
8
7
6
7
6
The organization of government provides some mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
5
4
3
4
3
The organization of government provides weak mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
2
1
1
The organization of government does not provide any mechanisms for ministers to implement the government’s program.
Turkey’s single-party government, which features strong party leadership and high demand for ministerial positions among party members, provides strong incentives to promote the government program. It is therefore difficult for ministers even with expertise in the areas they are responsible for to speak independently. The party leader’s charisma and standing, combined with the tendency within parties to leave personnel decisions to the party leader, prevent ministers from pursuing their interests during their time in office.
President Erdoğan actively intervened in the nomination of deputies, municipal mayors, the appointment of senior civil servants, and the organization of electoral campaigns. In other words, the office of the president, now entrusted with increasing powers, has replaced the offices otherwise established by the constitution. The current constellation thus raises the question of whether the effectiveness of the executive in general and the government, in particular, will be diminished by the existence of several centers of power, and suggests that the democratic separation of powers as a whole is eroding.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
President Erdoğan actively intervened in the nomination of deputies, municipal mayors, the appointment of senior civil servants, and the organization of electoral campaigns. In other words, the office of the president, now entrusted with increasing powers, has replaced the offices otherwise established by the constitution. The current constellation thus raises the question of whether the effectiveness of the executive in general and the government, in particular, will be diminished by the existence of several centers of power, and suggests that the democratic separation of powers as a whole is eroding.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
How effectively does the government office/prime minister’s office monitor line ministry activities with regard to implementation?
10
9
9
The GO / PMO effectively monitors the implementation activities of all line ministries.
8
7
6
7
6
The GO / PMO monitors the implementation activities of most line ministries.
5
4
3
4
3
The GO / PMO monitors the implementation activities of some line ministries.
2
1
1
The GO / PMO does not monitor the implementation activities of line ministries.
Under the new system, offices produce projects, councils transform projects into policies and the ministries implement policies. Besides, the Office of the Commander in Chief, Intelligence Department, Department of Defense Industry, National Security Council, Directorate of Religious Affairs, State Supervision Council, and Communication Department are affiliated with the Presidency. The Department of Administrative Affairs conducts monitoring and the State Supervision Council performs a control function.
The Presidency’s 2021 Annual Program initiates several monitoring objectives ranging from health, education, judiciary, development, domestic violence, and family life. It is stressed that monitoring will be performed by effective mechanisms in collaboration with the relevant public entities such as ministries, and assessed regularly. The results of these efforts remain to be seen
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
The Presidency’s 2021 Annual Program initiates several monitoring objectives ranging from health, education, judiciary, development, domestic violence, and family life. It is stressed that monitoring will be performed by effective mechanisms in collaboration with the relevant public entities such as ministries, and assessed regularly. The results of these efforts remain to be seen
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
How effectively do federal and subnational ministries monitor the activities of bureaucracies/executive agencies with regard to implementation?
10
9
9
The ministries effectively monitor the implementation activities of all bureaucracies/executive agencies.
8
7
6
7
6
The ministries monitor the implementation activities of most bureaucracies/executive agencies.
5
4
3
4
3
The ministries monitor the implementation activities of some bureaucracies/executive agencies.
2
1
1
The ministries do not monitor the implementation activities of bureaucracies/executive agencies.
Turkey is a unitary state divided into 81 provinces (Article 126 of the constitution). Power is devolved in such a way as to ensure the efficiency and coordination of public services from the center. Ministerial agencies are monitored regularly. The central administration by law holds the power to guide the activities of local administration, to ensure that local services are delivered in conformance with the guidelines set down by the central government, as well as ensuring services are uniform, meeting local needs and in the interest of the local population (Article 127). The central government has provincial organizations that differ in size and capacity and are regularly scrutinized by the central government. Independent administrative authorities such as the Telecommunications Authority and Energy Market Regulatory Authority are not monitored but are subject to judicial review.
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
To what extent does the central government ensure that tasks delegated to subnational self-governments are adequately funded?
10
9
9
The central government enables subnational self-governments to fulfill all their delegated tasks by funding these tasks sufficiently and/or by providing adequate revenue-raising powers.
8
7
6
7
6
The central government enables subnational governments to fulfill most of their delegated tasks by funding these tasks sufficiently and/or by providing adequate revenue-raising powers.
5
4
3
4
3
The central government sometimes and deliberately shifts unfunded mandates to subnational governments.
2
1
1
The central government often and deliberately shifts unfunded mandates to subnational self-governments.
Since 2009, transfers from the central government to municipalities via the Bank of Provinces have taken into consideration the number of inhabitants and the locality’s relative position on development indices. However, the new model has not eased the difficult financial situation of Turkey’s municipalities, which are seriously indebted to central-government institutions. According to the Turkish Court of Accounts’ reports, most metropolitan municipalities have substantial debts. Therefore, most local projects in major metropolitan municipalities are run by the central government.
Financial decentralization and the reform of local administrations were both major issues during the review period. The central administration (mainly through the Bank of Provinces) is still the major source of funding for local governments, with the funds channeled through regional development projects (e.g., GAP, DAP and DOKAP). The central government also continues to make transfers to the village infrastructure project (KÖYDES), the Drinking Water and Sewer Infrastructure Program (SUKAP), and the Social Support Program (SODES).
The resources allocated to metropolitan municipalities and special provincial administrations increased by 18.2% to TRY 97.3 billion in 2020. Nevertheless, arbitrary governance prevails. Most strikingly, the expenditures by trustees appointed to formerly HDP-governed municipalities such as Diyarbakır, Van and Mardin have been extremely high and without accountability. The trustee appointed to Van alone left a debt of TRY 1,389 billion in three years. In particular, extraordinary increases in office and dining expenses have been documented.
According to Law No. 5393 on Municipalities (Article 37), mayors make appointments in municipal companies. Shortly after the local elections on 20 May 2019, the Ministry of Trade granted this authority to the municipal councils. Moreover, the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization prepared a draft law that will terminate the powers of the opposition-controlled Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (İBB) and the four district municipalities regarding the Istanbul canal project. The 10% share of revenues accruing to the IBB from bridge crossings was transferred to the government. Moreover, a Council of State decision has given municipal councils the power to appoint administrators in municipality-affiliated institutes, with a majority vote required.
Citations:
Anadolu Ajansı. “2020 yılı merkezi yönetim bütçesi belli oldu,” October 17, 2019. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/politika/2020-yili-merkezi-yonetim-butcesi-belli-oldu/1616663
Evrensel. “Kayyumlar belediyeleri borç batağında bırakmıştı,” August 19, 2019. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/385098/kayyumlar-belediyeleri-borc-bataginda-birakmisti
Cumhuriyet. “Yeni Boğaziçi yasasıyla İBB’nin köprü geçiş ücreti payı da gidiyor,” November 1, 2019. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/yeni-bogazici-yasasiyla-ibbnin-kopru-gecis-ucreti-payi-da-gidiyor-1572928
Cumhuriyet. “”23 Haziran sendromu yeniden hortladı!”: Başkanların atama yetkisi meclislere verildi,” March 16, 2021. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/23-haziran-sendromu-yeniden-hortladi-baskanlarin-atama-yetkisi-meclislere-verildi-1821000
Financial decentralization and the reform of local administrations were both major issues during the review period. The central administration (mainly through the Bank of Provinces) is still the major source of funding for local governments, with the funds channeled through regional development projects (e.g., GAP, DAP and DOKAP). The central government also continues to make transfers to the village infrastructure project (KÖYDES), the Drinking Water and Sewer Infrastructure Program (SUKAP), and the Social Support Program (SODES).
The resources allocated to metropolitan municipalities and special provincial administrations increased by 18.2% to TRY 97.3 billion in 2020. Nevertheless, arbitrary governance prevails. Most strikingly, the expenditures by trustees appointed to formerly HDP-governed municipalities such as Diyarbakır, Van and Mardin have been extremely high and without accountability. The trustee appointed to Van alone left a debt of TRY 1,389 billion in three years. In particular, extraordinary increases in office and dining expenses have been documented.
According to Law No. 5393 on Municipalities (Article 37), mayors make appointments in municipal companies. Shortly after the local elections on 20 May 2019, the Ministry of Trade granted this authority to the municipal councils. Moreover, the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization prepared a draft law that will terminate the powers of the opposition-controlled Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (İBB) and the four district municipalities regarding the Istanbul canal project. The 10% share of revenues accruing to the IBB from bridge crossings was transferred to the government. Moreover, a Council of State decision has given municipal councils the power to appoint administrators in municipality-affiliated institutes, with a majority vote required.
Citations:
Anadolu Ajansı. “2020 yılı merkezi yönetim bütçesi belli oldu,” October 17, 2019. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/politika/2020-yili-merkezi-yonetim-butcesi-belli-oldu/1616663
Evrensel. “Kayyumlar belediyeleri borç batağında bırakmıştı,” August 19, 2019. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/385098/kayyumlar-belediyeleri-borc-bataginda-birakmisti
Cumhuriyet. “Yeni Boğaziçi yasasıyla İBB’nin köprü geçiş ücreti payı da gidiyor,” November 1, 2019. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/yeni-bogazici-yasasiyla-ibbnin-kopru-gecis-ucreti-payi-da-gidiyor-1572928
Cumhuriyet. “”23 Haziran sendromu yeniden hortladı!”: Başkanların atama yetkisi meclislere verildi,” March 16, 2021. https://www.cumhuriyet.com.tr/haber/23-haziran-sendromu-yeniden-hortladi-baskanlarin-atama-yetkisi-meclislere-verildi-1821000
To what extent does central government ensure that subnational self-governments may use their constitutional scope of discretion with regard to implementation?
10
9
9
The central government enables subnational self-governments to make full use of their constitutional scope of discretion with regard to implementation.
8
7
6
7
6
Central government policies inadvertently limit the subnational self-governments’ scope of discretion with regard to implementation.
5
4
3
4
3
The central government formally respects the constitutional autonomy of subnational self-governments, but de facto narrows their scope of discretion with regard to implementation.
2
1
1
The central government deliberately precludes subnational self-governments from making use of their constitutionally provided implementation autonomy.
Since 2014, Turkey’s municipalities have been subject to significant changes with respect to the delivery of administrative, financial, political, and public services. These changes run contrary to the European Charter of Local Self-Government and severely undermine the principle of subsidiarity. In addition, the Housing Development Administration of Turkey (TOKI) now holds all the power to act in efforts to prevent shanty housing in new areas assigned to a municipality. Furthermore, a June 2019 amendment to the Urban Transformation Regulation enabled the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization to consolidate the application of urban areas which results in a limitation of municipalities’ ability to exercise their powers.
While existing competencies will in general remain, ensuring effective and efficient delivery of public services will require an expansion of local government powers, diversification of local needs, and a strengthening of public interest. However, Turkey’s new presidential system, which is based on the centralization and unification of decision-making, does not allow for decentralization.
Citations:
K. Öztürk, “Yerel Yönetim Reformunda Yerelleşme– Merkezileşme Dikotomisi: 6360 Sayılı Yasa Örneği,” Hukuk Ve İktisat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11(2): 133-48.
While existing competencies will in general remain, ensuring effective and efficient delivery of public services will require an expansion of local government powers, diversification of local needs, and a strengthening of public interest. However, Turkey’s new presidential system, which is based on the centralization and unification of decision-making, does not allow for decentralization.
Citations:
K. Öztürk, “Yerel Yönetim Reformunda Yerelleşme– Merkezileşme Dikotomisi: 6360 Sayılı Yasa Örneği,” Hukuk Ve İktisat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11(2): 133-48.
To what extent does central government ensure that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services?
10
9
9
Central government effectively ensures that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services.
8
7
6
7
6
Central government largely ensures that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services.
5
4
3
4
3
Central government ensures that subnational self-governments realize national minimum standards of public services.
2
1
1
Central government does not ensure that subnational self-governments realize national standards of public services.
Local governments, mainly elected municipal governments, are subject to several supervision mechanisms such as internal and external audits, mayoral supervision, the control of local councils, and a central government audit. The Ministry of Interior Affairs closely monitors the structure and quality of services provided by municipal governments through its local agencies and administrative trusteeship which conduct internal and external audits and audits by civil service inspectors. The Turkish Court of Accounts (TCA) reviews the accounts of municipalities on behalf of parliament. It conducts performance audits of municipalities effectively. The Ministry of the Interior has the power to send civil inspectors and local government controllers to individual municipalities, and has, until recently done so to exercise political pressure on mayors with ties to the opposition.
Prior to the review period, the Ministry of Internal Affairs substantially increased the frequency of its inspections of municipalities. While inspectors prepared 625 reports in 2018, this figure increased by 58% to 990 in 2019. The number of special inspection reports increased by 1,400%. Additionally, in six of the 65 municipalities in which the HDP won in the 31 March 2019 local elections, the candidates elected were not authorized to govern. Trustees have been appointed to 48 municipalities. This represents an open violation of the right to rule, and has triggered harsh criticism among opposition parties.
While United Nations Development Program (UNDP) support for the implementation of local-administration reform in Turkey (LAR Phase 2) has been concluded, Turkey still aims to fulfill some requirements of the European Local Self-Government Charter. In this context, municipalities work to establish departments tasked with monitoring, investment, and coordination. The main duties of these departments are to provide, monitor, and coordinate public institutions and organizations’ investments and services; to provide and coordinate central-administration investments in the province, and to guide and inspect provincial public institutions and organizations. However, the most significant outstanding issues with regard to standardizing local public services are essentially financial, technical, and personnel-driven. Within the OECD, Turkey remains the country with the largest regional disparities.
Citations:
Birgün. “Belediyeler el değiştirdi denetim yüzde 1400 arttı,” September 28, 2020. https://www.birgun.net/haber/belediyeler-el-degistirdi-denetim-yuzde-1400-artti-317160
Evrensel. “HDP’nin 65 belediyesinden 48’i kayyumla, 6’sı mazbata verilmeyerek gasbedildi,” October 2, 2020. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/415521/hdpnin-65-belediyesinden-48i-kayyumla-6si-mazbata-verilmeyerek-gasbedildi
Prior to the review period, the Ministry of Internal Affairs substantially increased the frequency of its inspections of municipalities. While inspectors prepared 625 reports in 2018, this figure increased by 58% to 990 in 2019. The number of special inspection reports increased by 1,400%. Additionally, in six of the 65 municipalities in which the HDP won in the 31 March 2019 local elections, the candidates elected were not authorized to govern. Trustees have been appointed to 48 municipalities. This represents an open violation of the right to rule, and has triggered harsh criticism among opposition parties.
While United Nations Development Program (UNDP) support for the implementation of local-administration reform in Turkey (LAR Phase 2) has been concluded, Turkey still aims to fulfill some requirements of the European Local Self-Government Charter. In this context, municipalities work to establish departments tasked with monitoring, investment, and coordination. The main duties of these departments are to provide, monitor, and coordinate public institutions and organizations’ investments and services; to provide and coordinate central-administration investments in the province, and to guide and inspect provincial public institutions and organizations. However, the most significant outstanding issues with regard to standardizing local public services are essentially financial, technical, and personnel-driven. Within the OECD, Turkey remains the country with the largest regional disparities.
Citations:
Birgün. “Belediyeler el değiştirdi denetim yüzde 1400 arttı,” September 28, 2020. https://www.birgun.net/haber/belediyeler-el-degistirdi-denetim-yuzde-1400-artti-317160
Evrensel. “HDP’nin 65 belediyesinden 48’i kayyumla, 6’sı mazbata verilmeyerek gasbedildi,” October 2, 2020. https://www.evrensel.net/haber/415521/hdpnin-65-belediyesinden-48i-kayyumla-6si-mazbata-verilmeyerek-gasbedildi
To what extent is government enforcing regulations in an effective and unbiased way, also against vested interests?
10
9
9
Government agencies enforce regulations effectively and without bias.
8
7
6
7
6
Government agencies, for the most part, enforce regulations effectively and without bias.
5
4
3
4
3
Government agencies enforce regulations, but ineffectively and with bias.
2
1
1
Government agencies enforce regulations ineffectively, inconsistently and with bias.
During the review period, the AKP and the president followed a biased and polarizing strategy in government that undermined sustainable, democratic public policymaking and implementation. On many occasions, government members also accepted that the new system has some deficiencies in practice. Profiting from this is the group of clientelistic enterprises (the “gang of five”) that have been winning numerous public tenders. In total, this group has signed contracts worth a total of TRY 94 billion. The tenders in question include tenders for bridges, highways, airports, tunnels and city hospitals. Osmangazi Bridge, Third Airport, Eurasia Tunnel and Third Bridge are among the most notable projects.
The World Justice Project’s Rule of Law Index 2021 ranked Turkey at 119th place out of 139 countries, with a score of 0.41 for regulatory enforcement. In particular, the score for delays in enforcement without an acceptable reason (0.41) is below the global average (0.49), while the score for respect for due process is very low (0.14), particularly with respect to the global average (0.48).
Citations:
World Justice Project. WJP Rule of Law Index. https://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/country/2021/Turkey/Regulatory%20Enforcement/
Medyascope. “Kılıçdaroğlu’nun “Beşli Çete” dediği holdingler Cengiz, Limak, Kalyon, Kolin ve Makyol’un aldığı kamu ihaleleri,” December 14, 2020. https://medyascope.tv/2020/12/14/kilicdaroglunun-besli-cete-dedigi-holdingler-cengiz-limak-kalyon-kolin-ve-makyolun-aldigi-kamu-ihaleleri/
Hürriyet. “Yeni sisteme ‘uyum’ paketi: Sorunun % 80’i uygulama kaynaklı,.” September 5, 2019, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/yeni-sisteme-uyum-paketi-sorunun-80i-uygulama- kaynakli-41321763
The World Justice Project’s Rule of Law Index 2021 ranked Turkey at 119th place out of 139 countries, with a score of 0.41 for regulatory enforcement. In particular, the score for delays in enforcement without an acceptable reason (0.41) is below the global average (0.49), while the score for respect for due process is very low (0.14), particularly with respect to the global average (0.48).
Citations:
World Justice Project. WJP Rule of Law Index. https://worldjusticeproject.org/rule-of-law-index/country/2021/Turkey/Regulatory%20Enforcement/
Medyascope. “Kılıçdaroğlu’nun “Beşli Çete” dediği holdingler Cengiz, Limak, Kalyon, Kolin ve Makyol’un aldığı kamu ihaleleri,” December 14, 2020. https://medyascope.tv/2020/12/14/kilicdaroglunun-besli-cete-dedigi-holdingler-cengiz-limak-kalyon-kolin-ve-makyolun-aldigi-kamu-ihaleleri/
Hürriyet. “Yeni sisteme ‘uyum’ paketi: Sorunun % 80’i uygulama kaynaklı,.” September 5, 2019, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/yeni-sisteme-uyum-paketi-sorunun-80i-uygulama- kaynakli-41321763
Graph View
To what extent does the government respond to international and supranational developments by adapting domestic government structures?
10
9
9
The government has appropriately and effectively adapted domestic government structures to international and supranational developments.
8
7
6
7
6
In many cases, the government has adapted domestic government structures to international and supranational developments.
5
4
3
4
3
In some cases, the government has adapted domestic government structures to international and supranational developments.
2
1
1
The government has not adapted domestic government structures, no matter how beneficial adaptation might be.
The international environment does not much affect the administrative structure of the Turkish state. The new presidential system has been presented as a unique system in the world that maximizes efficiency in decision-making and implementation.
Instead of following international recommendations and complying with global currency-market conditions during the latest economic and lira crisis in 2018, the government refused to consult with the IMF to counter the currency crisis effectively. Another example is the Capital Markets Board (SPK), a regulatory and supervisory authority in charge of securities markets in Turkey whose announcement that insider trading would not be punished was overturned by decree.
On another topic, the state authorities are in ongoing operational consultation with UN and EU bodies to handle the ongoing refugee crisis. Institutional and procedural reforms, regulations and new projects are continuously undertaken in accordance with international norms. However, Turkey’s military interventions in Syria and northern Iraq are largely considered to have undermined regional security and the country’s own efforts to restabilize the region and promote the resettlement of refugees. Moreover, Turkey has not responded to EU demands to revise anti-terror legislation or visa policies as part of the EU refugee agreement, nor does it meet various Copenhagen standards in certain policy fields that are required for EU accession. Finally, despite its regular consultation with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), Turkey still ranks second after Russia in failing to execute ECHR rulings, especially concerning the political trials of Selahattin Demirtaş and Osman Kavala.
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Instead of following international recommendations and complying with global currency-market conditions during the latest economic and lira crisis in 2018, the government refused to consult with the IMF to counter the currency crisis effectively. Another example is the Capital Markets Board (SPK), a regulatory and supervisory authority in charge of securities markets in Turkey whose announcement that insider trading would not be punished was overturned by decree.
On another topic, the state authorities are in ongoing operational consultation with UN and EU bodies to handle the ongoing refugee crisis. Institutional and procedural reforms, regulations and new projects are continuously undertaken in accordance with international norms. However, Turkey’s military interventions in Syria and northern Iraq are largely considered to have undermined regional security and the country’s own efforts to restabilize the region and promote the resettlement of refugees. Moreover, Turkey has not responded to EU demands to revise anti-terror legislation or visa policies as part of the EU refugee agreement, nor does it meet various Copenhagen standards in certain policy fields that are required for EU accession. Finally, despite its regular consultation with the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), Turkey still ranks second after Russia in failing to execute ECHR rulings, especially concerning the political trials of Selahattin Demirtaş and Osman Kavala.
Citations:
Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. 2021 Yılı Cumhurbaşkanlığı Yıllık Programı. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/2021_Yili_Cumhurbaskanligi_Yillik_Programi.pdf
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
To what extent is the government able to collaborate effectively with international efforts to foster global public goods?
10
9
9
The government can take a leading role in shaping and implementing collective efforts to provide global public goods. It is able to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is largely able to shape and implement collective efforts to provide global public goods. Existing processes enabling the government to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress are, for the most part, effective.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is partially able to shape and implement collective efforts to provide global public goods. Processes designed to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress show deficiencies.
2
1
1
The government does not have sufficient institutional capacities to shape and implement collective efforts to provide global public goods. It does not have effective processes to ensure coherence in national policies affecting progress.
Despite the many controversial steps Turkey has taken in foreign and security policy, Turkish state authorities play an active role in numerous fields and levels of international affairs (e.g., the United Nations, G-20, OSCE, NATO, the Council of Europe, EU, the Regional Cooperation Council in the Balkans, the OIC in the Islamic world, the Turkic Council in Central Asia and MIKTA). Yet, apart from its G-20 presidency in 2015 or the international summits it hosts (where the government has been able to actively promote global common goods), Turkey usually takes and is increasingly taking a more assertive approach that is driven by its national interests. As a result, the country has increasingly confronted partners (NATO) and undermined joint undertakings and common interests in EU-Turkey relations (e.g., regarding stability in the Eastern Mediterranean).
Since, 2014, Turkey has cooperated with EU member states in seeking to identify foreign terrorist fighters (FTF) looking to cross Turkey to reach – or return from – Syria or Iraq. It has acted assertively in sending FTFs back to their countries of origin. At the same time, state authorities at times instrumentalize the refugee issue to advance national interests against Greece and other EU states instead of seeking joint understanding and sustainable solutions. In addition, the Ministry of National Defense takes part in joint peacekeeping and humanitarian operations in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Qatar. Turkey has made some public efforts to support the 2030 Agenda associated with the Sustainable Development Goals.
However, problems persist on several fronts, for instance regarding the armament of the Republic of Cyprus. Turkey’s search for natural gas in the eastern Mediterranean has caused severe tension with the major players in the region. U.S.-Turkey relations severely deteriorated during the review period. Turkey’s purchase of S-400 missiles from Russia led to the enforcement of the U.S. Countering America’s Adversaries through Sanctions Act (CAATSA), with sanctions taking effect in April 2021. The Halkbank case, Fethullah Gülen’s possible extradition, and the U.S. support for Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces are also stressing the already fragile relationship. Nevertheless, both parties have found some common ground for cooperation in Afghanistan.
In recent years, Turkey increased its investment in Africa, especially in Somalia, despite the humanitarian costs due to several deadly attacks against Turks. Relations with Israel have improved considerably. In Syria, Turkey actively worked through the Astana Process, a tripartite committee that also involves Iran and Russia. In jihadist-controlled Idlib, military observation posts have been established. Additionally, Turkey has become a close ally of Russia, and has extended its cooperation in the fields of defense, energy and tourism. Efforts have also been made to align Turkey’s Middle Corridor infrastructure strategy with China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
TİKA Annual Report 2020, https://www.tika.gov.tr/upload/sayfa/FAAL%C4%B0YET%20RAPORU%202020/TIKAFaaliyet2020Web.pdf
Since, 2014, Turkey has cooperated with EU member states in seeking to identify foreign terrorist fighters (FTF) looking to cross Turkey to reach – or return from – Syria or Iraq. It has acted assertively in sending FTFs back to their countries of origin. At the same time, state authorities at times instrumentalize the refugee issue to advance national interests against Greece and other EU states instead of seeking joint understanding and sustainable solutions. In addition, the Ministry of National Defense takes part in joint peacekeeping and humanitarian operations in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Qatar. Turkey has made some public efforts to support the 2030 Agenda associated with the Sustainable Development Goals.
However, problems persist on several fronts, for instance regarding the armament of the Republic of Cyprus. Turkey’s search for natural gas in the eastern Mediterranean has caused severe tension with the major players in the region. U.S.-Turkey relations severely deteriorated during the review period. Turkey’s purchase of S-400 missiles from Russia led to the enforcement of the U.S. Countering America’s Adversaries through Sanctions Act (CAATSA), with sanctions taking effect in April 2021. The Halkbank case, Fethullah Gülen’s possible extradition, and the U.S. support for Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces are also stressing the already fragile relationship. Nevertheless, both parties have found some common ground for cooperation in Afghanistan.
In recent years, Turkey increased its investment in Africa, especially in Somalia, despite the humanitarian costs due to several deadly attacks against Turks. Relations with Israel have improved considerably. In Syria, Turkey actively worked through the Astana Process, a tripartite committee that also involves Iran and Russia. In jihadist-controlled Idlib, military observation posts have been established. Additionally, Turkey has become a close ally of Russia, and has extended its cooperation in the fields of defense, energy and tourism. Efforts have also been made to align Turkey’s Middle Corridor infrastructure strategy with China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
TİKA Annual Report 2020, https://www.tika.gov.tr/upload/sayfa/FAAL%C4%B0YET%20RAPORU%202020/TIKAFaaliyet2020Web.pdf
Graph View
To what extent do actors within the government monitor whether institutional arrangements of governing are appropriate?
10
9
9
The institutional arrangements of governing are monitored regularly and effectively.
8
7
6
7
6
The institutional arrangements of governing are monitored regularly.
5
4
3
4
3
The institutional arrangements of governing are selectively and sporadically monitored.
2
1
1
There is no monitoring.
With the April 2017 referendum and the subsequent incremental introduction of the presidential system of government, Turkey has undergone an organizational change involving the creation of new institutions, the merging or splitting of ministerial bodies, legal changes, and rapid personnel shifts. These developments make monitoring exceedingly difficult.
The organization of the new presidential system was regulated by Presidential Decree No. 703 in July 2018. In addition to a vice-president, the head of administrative affairs was established under the General Directorate of Law and Legislation. Its main task as the head of administrative affairs is to coordinate between public institutions and organizations and examine the congruity of laws adopted by the parliament and draft legislation prepared by government institutions with the constitution, current legislation, presidential decrees, and government program. The policy councils of the president are expected to monitor and report the implementation of governmental policies to the president.
Several units contribute to the monitoring process directly or indirectly. These units include the State Supervisory Council, the Directorate General of Law and Legislation of the Presidency of the Republic, the Directorate General of Laws and Decrees of the TBMM, the General Directorate of Laws of the Ministry of Justice, and the Council of State. Each administrative institution has its internal control unit for monitoring compliance with financial rules. However, these units are not fully effective.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
The organization of the new presidential system was regulated by Presidential Decree No. 703 in July 2018. In addition to a vice-president, the head of administrative affairs was established under the General Directorate of Law and Legislation. Its main task as the head of administrative affairs is to coordinate between public institutions and organizations and examine the congruity of laws adopted by the parliament and draft legislation prepared by government institutions with the constitution, current legislation, presidential decrees, and government program. The policy councils of the president are expected to monitor and report the implementation of governmental policies to the president.
Several units contribute to the monitoring process directly or indirectly. These units include the State Supervisory Council, the Directorate General of Law and Legislation of the Presidency of the Republic, the Directorate General of Laws and Decrees of the TBMM, the General Directorate of Laws of the Ministry of Justice, and the Council of State. Each administrative institution has its internal control unit for monitoring compliance with financial rules. However, these units are not fully effective.
Citations:
European Commission. “Turkey Report 2021. Commission Staff Working Document.” October 19, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/turkey-report-2021_en
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
To what extent does the government improve its strategic capacity by changing the institutional arrangements of governing?
10
9
9
The government improves its strategic capacity considerably by changing its institutional arrangements.
8
7
6
7
6
The government improves its strategic capacity by changing its institutional arrangements.
5
4
3
4
3
The government does not improve its strategic capacity by changing its institutional arrangements.
2
1
1
The government loses strategic capacity by changing its institutional arrangements.
According to Law 5018 on Public Financial Management and Control, all public institutions, including municipalities and special provincial administrations, must prepare strategic plans. All public bodies have designated a separate department for developing strategy and coordination efforts; however, these departments are not yet completely functional. Maximizing strategic capacity requires resources, expert knowledge, an adequate budget, and a participatory approach. The government lacks sufficient personnel to meet the requirements of strategic planning, performance-based programs, and activity reports. In this respect, several training and internship programs have been established.
Turkey still lacks a strategic framework for public administration reform, including public financial management. There are various planning documents and sectoral policy documents on different aspects of public administration reform, but the lack of political support hinders comprehensive reform efforts. An administrative unit with a legal mandate to coordinate, design, implement and monitor public administration reform has not yet been established. Within the scope of IPA funds, Turkey attempts to ensure effective strategic planning and risk management at the program level.
Citations:
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.
Turkey still lacks a strategic framework for public administration reform, including public financial management. There are various planning documents and sectoral policy documents on different aspects of public administration reform, but the lack of political support hinders comprehensive reform efforts. An administrative unit with a legal mandate to coordinate, design, implement and monitor public administration reform has not yet been established. Within the scope of IPA funds, Turkey attempts to ensure effective strategic planning and risk management at the program level.
Citations:
Gözler, K. (2018). Mahalli İdareler Hukuku. Baskı, Ekin Kitabevi: Bursa.