Canada

Canada performs relatively poorly in international comparison (rank 26) with regard to vertical accountability.

Regular elections are held at all levels of government, and are deemed free and fair. Citizens and political parties can freely express their views, organize and participate in politics. Campaign financing is transparent, with reforms aimed at limiting private and corporate donations.

Voting is free and inclusive, with universal adult suffrage. Elections are overseen by bodies with some distance from the government. Early voting and mail voting are possible. Information is provided in both official languages, English and French, to avoid language barriers.

Political parties face no barriers to formation, but competition favors well-established parties. The first-past-the-post electoral system discourages cross-party cooperation. Federal and provincial freedom of information laws exist, but exempt many government records.

Canada falls into the upper-middle ranks (rank 9) with respect to diagonal accountability.

No significant barriers to media reporting exist apart from libel and slander laws. Criticism of the government is common. Foreign ownership of Canadian media is restricted, and media concentration in certain areas limits competition.

The traditional media sector, which is largely controlled by large corporations, is in decline. Canadians are increasingly turning to online sources and social media for diverse political opinions. Misinformation here remains a challenge.

Freedom of assembly is generally protected, with some restrictions on hate groups and banned organizations. The government provides little direct funding for interest groups, but often favors business over labor interests. CSOs tend to lack direct access to policymakers, but can produce strong research and influence public opinion.

In the category of horizontal accountability, Canada falls into the lower-middle ranks internationally (rank 21).

Well-funded auditors-general operate at both the provincial and federal levels, and are independent of the governments. There is no generalized data protection office or privacy legislation.

Judicial independence is a key aspect of Canada’s legal system. The judiciary effectively steps in if the government oversteps legal boundaries or infringes on individual rights. A Charter of Rights and Freedoms protects fundamental civil and human rights, but provinces can opt out in some cases.

The parliament has adequate resources, and is able to vet bills. However, under the majority governments that are common, governing parties control parliament and its committees. This leaves limited opportunity for opposition parties to scrutinize government activities effectively.

Canada performs relatively poorly in international comparison (rank 23) with regard to coordination.

Key central government agencies, especially the Privy Council Office (PCO), coordinate policy . relations with parliament and other departments. The PCO also supports the prime minister and cabinet in managing government affairs.

Interdepartmental committees are used to coordinate ministerial activities, with varying degrees of effectiveness. Informal meetings between senior officials and front-line staffers are common. The PCO has supplanted cabinet committees as the body tasked with resolving issues before they reach the cabinet.

In Canada’s federal system, provinces control key economic, environmental and social programs. Although it has some leverage through spending programs, the federal government has limited control over provincial actions in these areas. Provinces often resist national standards.

Canada receives high rankings (rank 8) in the category of consensus-building.

While numerous private sector actors, NGOs and academics provide policy analysis, a small group of “hyper-experts” has a more significant impact.

Business associations are often consulted by the government, but trade unions rarely are. Other CSOs often engage in policy dialogue, but their impact on decision-making is unclear. Environmental groups often have antagonistic relationships with the government, leading to court fights.

Access to government documents in Canada is limited, as freedom of information laws have many exceptions, and document provision is slow. Government websites provide useful information on policies and services, with performance dashboards having improved transparency.

Canada performs well (rank 7) in the category of sensemaking.

The government lacks official strategic foresight mechanisms, with many decisions focused on short-term goals driven by electoral cycles. Neither the Prime Minister’s Office nor the Privy Council Office have dedicated strategic planning units for long-term scenarios. Central agencies regularly draw on experts to develop plans and priorities.

The federal government uses a regulatory impact analysis system for proposed regulations with significant impact. Especially in areas like environment and climate change, these are often informed by scientific research conducted by the department. As relevant, they quantify impacts on sustainability.

Ex post evaluation is a weak point. Even when performed, such assessments are rarely made public. Most such evaluations are conducted internally within departments, and thus are not independent and lack transparency.

Canada performs relatively poorly in international comparison (rank 24) with regard to economic sustainability.

With a strongly resource-focused economy, circular economic approaches have not been a focus. A national critical infrastructure strategy is in place, but climate-change issues such as wildfires have created steep new challenges. The government has set decarbonization goals but has never achieved them, and continues to invest billions in oil pipelines.

Tax credits and training programs support workers transitioning between jobs, and seek to align labor supply with demand. Strong antidiscrimination laws are in place, but wage gaps and hiring biases persist for women and minorities. The social safety net is strong but has not been updated to reflect modern work structures.

Corporate tax rates are low, but income taxes are relatively high. Aside from carbon taxes, few tax-system provisions address externalities. While debt levels are low by G7 standards, deficits are rising. R&D strategies are not coordinated across sectors, diminishing sustainability effects.

In the category of social sustainability, Canada falls into the upper-middle ranks (rank 9).

The high-quality education system, largely managed by provinces, produces good outcomes. Equity in access to education is strong, and Canadian teachers are well-paid by global standards. The overall quality of the university system is exceptional.

Canada’s welfare state provides income support and essential services, but vulnerable populations like refugees and Indigenous peoples face specific challenges. The high-quality public healthcare system is universally available, although long wait times remain a significant issue. Healthcare is provincially managed, which leads to some service quality variations.

Gender equality initiatives include pay equity laws and parental leave policies. Despite significant federal investment, childcare services availability is subpar outside of Quebec. The state has encouraged immigration, and services help migrants adjust. Affordable housing is a serious problem across populations.

Canada falls into the upper-middle ranks internationally (rank 10) in the category of environmental sustainability.

Climate neutrality is a key focus, especially following recent widespread fires and flooding. The government has committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% to 45% below 2005 levels by 2030, with a goal of net-zero emissions by 2050.

Clean technologies are gaining in importance, with federal budgets increasingly providing funding for innovation in this sector. Coal is being phased out. However, the state has provided strong support for pipelines carrying oil for export.

Canada’s environmental protection regime includes laws, regulations and action plans at both the federal and provincial levels, alongside an extensive park and wilderness system. Many ecosystem-specific plans exist, and the state works with Indigenous and territorial governments on conservation initiatives.