Social Sustainability
#9Key Findings
In the category of social sustainability, Canada falls into the upper-middle ranks (rank 9).
The high-quality education system, largely managed by provinces, produces good outcomes. Equity in access to education is strong, and Canadian teachers are well-paid by global standards. The overall quality of the university system is exceptional.
Canada’s welfare state provides income support and essential services, but vulnerable populations like refugees and Indigenous peoples face specific challenges. The high-quality public healthcare system is universally available, although long wait times remain a significant issue. Healthcare is provincially managed, which leads to some service quality variations.
Gender equality initiatives include pay equity laws and parental leave policies. Despite significant federal investment, childcare services availability is subpar outside of Quebec. The state has encouraged immigration, and services help migrants adjust. Affordable housing is a serious problem across populations.
The high-quality education system, largely managed by provinces, produces good outcomes. Equity in access to education is strong, and Canadian teachers are well-paid by global standards. The overall quality of the university system is exceptional.
Canada’s welfare state provides income support and essential services, but vulnerable populations like refugees and Indigenous peoples face specific challenges. The high-quality public healthcare system is universally available, although long wait times remain a significant issue. Healthcare is provincially managed, which leads to some service quality variations.
Gender equality initiatives include pay equity laws and parental leave policies. Despite significant federal investment, childcare services availability is subpar outside of Quebec. The state has encouraged immigration, and services help migrants adjust. Affordable housing is a serious problem across populations.
Graph View
Graph View
To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
Education quality in Canada is high. Education is largely a provincial matter (for instance, there is no federal department of education) but is well funded and of high quality by all international metrics.
The country boasts several world-class universities, and the overall quality of its institutions is exceptional.
Canadian teachers are well-paid by global standards. Canadian students score well above the OECD average in reading – fourth place among 77 countries – science, sixth place, and mathematics, 10th place. Research has emphasized how these strong results have come without the existence of a federal ministry of education.
Equity in access to education in Canada is impressive. A very high proportion of the population has some post-secondary education, thanks in part to the extensive development of community colleges. There are many educational second chances for Canadian youth. The high school completion rate is also high.
Socioeconomic background poses a much lower barrier to post-secondary education in Canada than in most other countries. Post-secondary education is also under the jurisdiction of the provinces.
Allocated resources are reasonable and generally used efficiently. The federal government contributes grant money to post-secondary students with financial need. It also offers grants for education through a Registered Education Savings Plan if parents contribute. Furthermore, there are federal and provincial loans available.
programs.
Despite the strengths of the Canadian education system, a major challenge is the continuing gap in educational attainment between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations.
Citations:
https://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/64/Education-in-Canada2008.pdf
The country boasts several world-class universities, and the overall quality of its institutions is exceptional.
Canadian teachers are well-paid by global standards. Canadian students score well above the OECD average in reading – fourth place among 77 countries – science, sixth place, and mathematics, 10th place. Research has emphasized how these strong results have come without the existence of a federal ministry of education.
Equity in access to education in Canada is impressive. A very high proportion of the population has some post-secondary education, thanks in part to the extensive development of community colleges. There are many educational second chances for Canadian youth. The high school completion rate is also high.
Socioeconomic background poses a much lower barrier to post-secondary education in Canada than in most other countries. Post-secondary education is also under the jurisdiction of the provinces.
Allocated resources are reasonable and generally used efficiently. The federal government contributes grant money to post-secondary students with financial need. It also offers grants for education through a Registered Education Savings Plan if parents contribute. Furthermore, there are federal and provincial loans available.
programs.
Despite the strengths of the Canadian education system, a major challenge is the continuing gap in educational attainment between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations.
Citations:
https://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/64/Education-in-Canada2008.pdf
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
K–12 schooling in Canada is public, free, and widely accessible. Although Canada’s education system promotes equitable access in certain aspects, barriers remain in delivering quality education to all groups and regions. Some private schools serve religious minorities and the wealthy, but these institutions constitute a small fraction of the overall system. Public funding ensures that tuition remains affordable at the primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels. Needs-based financial assistance supports low-income students in attending university or college.
“Standardized learning benchmarks set across most provinces drive quality.”
Inequities in school outcomes based on income level and other socioeconomic factors persist. Variation in education quality across provinces and rural/urban locations is a problem, as are insufficient support services and resources for marginalized student populations. Student debt levels can still deter post-secondary participation (Campbell 2021).
While foundational elements like public schooling and financial aid facilitate access, gaps in equitable funding allocation, teacher quality distribution, and the depth of assistance programs lead skills and attainment levels to diverge sharply by income, region, disability status, and background. Access alone does not guarantee the quality learning critical for social mobility.
Citations:
Campbell, Carol. 2021. “Educational Equity in Canada: The Case of Ontario’s Strategies and Actions to Advance Excellence and Equity for Students.” School Leadership & Management 41 (4-5): 409-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2019.1709165
“Standardized learning benchmarks set across most provinces drive quality.”
Inequities in school outcomes based on income level and other socioeconomic factors persist. Variation in education quality across provinces and rural/urban locations is a problem, as are insufficient support services and resources for marginalized student populations. Student debt levels can still deter post-secondary participation (Campbell 2021).
While foundational elements like public schooling and financial aid facilitate access, gaps in equitable funding allocation, teacher quality distribution, and the depth of assistance programs lead skills and attainment levels to diverge sharply by income, region, disability status, and background. Access alone does not guarantee the quality learning critical for social mobility.
Citations:
Campbell, Carol. 2021. “Educational Equity in Canada: The Case of Ontario’s Strategies and Actions to Advance Excellence and Equity for Students.” School Leadership & Management 41 (4-5): 409-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2019.1709165
Graph View
To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
Canada created a modern welfare state gradually during the mid-twentieth century, with many major programs emerging between the early 1940s and the late 1960s. These programs provide access to income support and essential services for citizens and permanent residents in need, but gaps in coverage remained even at the height of welfare state expansion (Bella, 1979).
Canada is considered a liberal welfare state regime (Esping-Andersen, 1990) that spends less than many other advanced industrial countries on average on social programming. Moreover, even with universal coverage, vulnerable populations such as refugees, Indigenous peoples, and people with disabilities face specific challenges (Béland, Marchildon and Prince, 2019).
Still, Canadian governments run large programs like employment insurance, tax credits, pensions, and child benefits, allowing for wide public awareness. Provinces typically offer low social assistance payments for low-income individuals under 65 to support basic necessities, but these payments often do not prevent many recipients from living in poverty (Béland and Daigneault, 2015). Some essential services in Canada are publicly provided, such as water and electricity, and are usually available at low cost (Campbell 1989).
Application processes are available digitally, by phone, and in person. Efforts have been made to simplify forms to facilitate uptake. Bank accounts, phone and internet service, and public transit are typically accessible even to unemployed and homeless populations, although financial literacy remains a barrier to accessing income benefits and banking services.
Transitional shelters and mental health/addiction services, however, are inadequately funded. Rural and remote locations can also lack transit services and access to digital infrastructure. Furthermore, poor housing quality and affordability are issues for many despite basic welfare allotments (Bendaoud 2018).
Citations:
Béland, Daniel and Pierre-Marc Daigneault, eds. 2015. Welfare Reform in Canada: Provincial Social Assistance in Comparative Perspective. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Béland, Daniel, Gregory P. Marchildon, and Michael J. Prince, eds. 2019. Universality and Social Policy in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Bella, Leslie. 1979. “The Provincial Role in the Canadian Welfare State: The Influence of Provincial Social Policy Initiatives on the Design of the Canada Assistance Plan.” Canadian Public Administration 22 (3): 439–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-7121.1979.tb01827
Bendaoud, Maroine. 2018. “Public Versus Non-Profit Housing in Canadian Provinces: Learning, History and Cost-Benefit Analysis.” In Learning in Public Policy: Analysis, Modes and Outcomes, eds. Claire A. Dunlop, Claudio M. Radaelli, and Philipp Trein, 167–89. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76210-4_8
Esping-Andersen, Gøsta. 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity.
O’Connor, J. S. 1989. “Welfare Expenditure and Policy Orientation in Canada in Comparative Perspective.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 26 (1): 127–50.
Canada is considered a liberal welfare state regime (Esping-Andersen, 1990) that spends less than many other advanced industrial countries on average on social programming. Moreover, even with universal coverage, vulnerable populations such as refugees, Indigenous peoples, and people with disabilities face specific challenges (Béland, Marchildon and Prince, 2019).
Still, Canadian governments run large programs like employment insurance, tax credits, pensions, and child benefits, allowing for wide public awareness. Provinces typically offer low social assistance payments for low-income individuals under 65 to support basic necessities, but these payments often do not prevent many recipients from living in poverty (Béland and Daigneault, 2015). Some essential services in Canada are publicly provided, such as water and electricity, and are usually available at low cost (Campbell 1989).
Application processes are available digitally, by phone, and in person. Efforts have been made to simplify forms to facilitate uptake. Bank accounts, phone and internet service, and public transit are typically accessible even to unemployed and homeless populations, although financial literacy remains a barrier to accessing income benefits and banking services.
Transitional shelters and mental health/addiction services, however, are inadequately funded. Rural and remote locations can also lack transit services and access to digital infrastructure. Furthermore, poor housing quality and affordability are issues for many despite basic welfare allotments (Bendaoud 2018).
Citations:
Béland, Daniel and Pierre-Marc Daigneault, eds. 2015. Welfare Reform in Canada: Provincial Social Assistance in Comparative Perspective. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Béland, Daniel, Gregory P. Marchildon, and Michael J. Prince, eds. 2019. Universality and Social Policy in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Bella, Leslie. 1979. “The Provincial Role in the Canadian Welfare State: The Influence of Provincial Social Policy Initiatives on the Design of the Canada Assistance Plan.” Canadian Public Administration 22 (3): 439–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-7121.1979.tb01827
Bendaoud, Maroine. 2018. “Public Versus Non-Profit Housing in Canadian Provinces: Learning, History and Cost-Benefit Analysis.” In Learning in Public Policy: Analysis, Modes and Outcomes, eds. Claire A. Dunlop, Claudio M. Radaelli, and Philipp Trein, 167–89. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76210-4_8
Esping-Andersen, Gøsta. 1990. The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity.
O’Connor, J. S. 1989. “Welfare Expenditure and Policy Orientation in Canada in Comparative Perspective.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 26 (1): 127–50.
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
Many problems exist with basic income support measures in the Canadian welfare state. These include the fact that basic income levels may not be sufficient to fully cover market-rate housing costs in many Canadian cities. Additional subsidized housing programs are needed to meet this basic need but take years to develop (Evans et al. 2021).
Basic income supports, however, do not fully cover household energy or food costs (Men et al. 2016). Specific energy and food subsidies may exist but differ depending on provincial policies. Public transport is heavily subsidized in major cities.
Overall, Canada scores well on international rankings for meeting basic needs. However, assessments reveal gaps in areas such as housing, food security, mental healthcare, and Indigenous communities. Water and sanitation needs are generally met through public infrastructure, not directly through income benefits. Nevertheless, higher benefits could improve affordability. Increases in basic income could also enhance internet affordability.
Citations:
Evans, Joshua, Damian Collins, and Jalene Anderson. 2016. “Homelessness, Bedspace and the Case for Housing First in Canada.” Social Science & Medicine 168 (November): 249–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.06.049
Men, Fei, Marcelo L. Urquia, and Valerie Tarasuk. 2021. “The Role of Provincial Social Policies and Economic Environments in Shaping Food Insecurity among Canadian Families with Children.” Preventive Medicine 148: 106558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106558
Basic income supports, however, do not fully cover household energy or food costs (Men et al. 2016). Specific energy and food subsidies may exist but differ depending on provincial policies. Public transport is heavily subsidized in major cities.
Overall, Canada scores well on international rankings for meeting basic needs. However, assessments reveal gaps in areas such as housing, food security, mental healthcare, and Indigenous communities. Water and sanitation needs are generally met through public infrastructure, not directly through income benefits. Nevertheless, higher benefits could improve affordability. Increases in basic income could also enhance internet affordability.
Citations:
Evans, Joshua, Damian Collins, and Jalene Anderson. 2016. “Homelessness, Bedspace and the Case for Housing First in Canada.” Social Science & Medicine 168 (November): 249–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.06.049
Men, Fei, Marcelo L. Urquia, and Valerie Tarasuk. 2021. “The Role of Provincial Social Policies and Economic Environments in Shaping Food Insecurity among Canadian Families with Children.” Preventive Medicine 148: 106558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106558
Graph View
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
Public healthcare is the most popular social program in Canada and occupies a significant portion of provincial government budgets. Health Canada’s regulatory system aims to ensure the stability of critical supply chains. Public health units coordinate disease surveillance, though fragmentation across provinces persists.
Yet, Canada’s health system is generally considered quite resilient compared to many other countries. Canada’s single-payer universal healthcare system covers necessary medical services for the entire population, providing a baseline of access and helping manage public health crises. Healthcare is largely provincially managed, allowing for regional flexibility and adaptation. The federal Canada Health Act provides broad national standards that are not always strictly enforced. There is well-developed public health technology, surveillance systems, and expertise at all levels of government. Canada has an above-average number of hospital beds and doctors per capita compared to OECD countries. This provides a buffer during surges.
There are problems, however. Universal coverage facilitates resilience, as was amply shown in the case of access to medical services and vaccines during the COVID period. Preventive health investments, however, lag behind curative spending despite potential health system savings.
Data systems and technology infrastructure remain antiquated, slowing real-time monitoring. Healthcare policy data sharing among provinces is also weak. Cost control measures, such as competitive procurement, are often underutilized, allowing price inflation.
Rural and Indigenous communities experienced acute healthcare gaps during COVID and, beyond the pandemic, people in remote areas sometimes struggle to access care because they live so far from hospitals.
Shortages of nurses and family doctors, along with an aging health workforce, are all significant issues. Additionally, waiting lists for elective surgeries can be excessively long.
Many hospitals and facilities are outdated, and the lack of isolation capacity became an issue during COVID-19.
While Canada’s public system provides a good foundation, targeted investments and policy changes could help strengthen its capacity to handle crises and unforeseen shocks. Ongoing reform and innovation are likely needed to maintain and improve resilience (Alin et al. 2022).
Citations:
Allin, Sara, Sierra Campbell, Margaret Jamieson, Fiona Miller, Monika Roerig, and John Sproule. 2022. Strengthening Primary Care Key to Rebuilding Canada’s Crumbling Healthcare System. Toronto: University of Toronto.
Yet, Canada’s health system is generally considered quite resilient compared to many other countries. Canada’s single-payer universal healthcare system covers necessary medical services for the entire population, providing a baseline of access and helping manage public health crises. Healthcare is largely provincially managed, allowing for regional flexibility and adaptation. The federal Canada Health Act provides broad national standards that are not always strictly enforced. There is well-developed public health technology, surveillance systems, and expertise at all levels of government. Canada has an above-average number of hospital beds and doctors per capita compared to OECD countries. This provides a buffer during surges.
There are problems, however. Universal coverage facilitates resilience, as was amply shown in the case of access to medical services and vaccines during the COVID period. Preventive health investments, however, lag behind curative spending despite potential health system savings.
Data systems and technology infrastructure remain antiquated, slowing real-time monitoring. Healthcare policy data sharing among provinces is also weak. Cost control measures, such as competitive procurement, are often underutilized, allowing price inflation.
Rural and Indigenous communities experienced acute healthcare gaps during COVID and, beyond the pandemic, people in remote areas sometimes struggle to access care because they live so far from hospitals.
Shortages of nurses and family doctors, along with an aging health workforce, are all significant issues. Additionally, waiting lists for elective surgeries can be excessively long.
Many hospitals and facilities are outdated, and the lack of isolation capacity became an issue during COVID-19.
While Canada’s public system provides a good foundation, targeted investments and policy changes could help strengthen its capacity to handle crises and unforeseen shocks. Ongoing reform and innovation are likely needed to maintain and improve resilience (Alin et al. 2022).
Citations:
Allin, Sara, Sierra Campbell, Margaret Jamieson, Fiona Miller, Monika Roerig, and John Sproule. 2022. Strengthening Primary Care Key to Rebuilding Canada’s Crumbling Healthcare System. Toronto: University of Toronto.
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
There is an ongoing problem involving a trade-off between equity of access and the speed of services in the public system. Since the private system is actively discouraged by the provincial payment system, long wait times for certain procedures can result.
The most glaring problem with the Canadian system is timely access to care. In a 2017 study by the Commonwealth Fund, Canada ranked last for providing timely access to care among 11 high-income countries. As hospitals and healthcare units pivoted to deal with COVID-19 – redirecting resources to emergency and intensive care – these wait times and access issues became even more acute.
The Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that almost 560,000 fewer surgeries were performed between March 2020 and June 2021 compared with 2019. The Canadian Medical Association has championed the need for change, highlighting the immense challenges the Canadian healthcare system is “struggling” with and calling for an infusion of CAD 1.3 billion in funding from the federal government (Vogel 2020).
Citations:
Vogel, Lauren. 2020. “How Can Canada Improve Worsening Wait Times?” CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal 192 (37): E1079–80. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1095895
The most glaring problem with the Canadian system is timely access to care. In a 2017 study by the Commonwealth Fund, Canada ranked last for providing timely access to care among 11 high-income countries. As hospitals and healthcare units pivoted to deal with COVID-19 – redirecting resources to emergency and intensive care – these wait times and access issues became even more acute.
The Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that almost 560,000 fewer surgeries were performed between March 2020 and June 2021 compared with 2019. The Canadian Medical Association has championed the need for change, highlighting the immense challenges the Canadian healthcare system is “struggling” with and calling for an infusion of CAD 1.3 billion in funding from the federal government (Vogel 2020).
Citations:
Vogel, Lauren. 2020. “How Can Canada Improve Worsening Wait Times?” CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal 192 (37): E1079–80. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1095895
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
Canada boasts universal access to a comprehensive public health system, albeit with lengthy wait times. Healthcare administration falls under the purview of the provinces and territories, resulting in some variability in health policy implementation. Consequently, the quality and availability of healthcare services can differ across regions.
Long wait times for certain medical procedures have been a concern in Canada. While the system aims to provide equal access to care, some individuals may face delays in receiving specific treatments, potentially affecting the overall quality of healthcare. This situation allows high-income patients to seek services in other provinces or countries, undermining the principle of equal access.
“Primary care access is crucial for preventing and managing health conditions, and securing an adequate supply of general practitioners has proven challenging for many Canadian governments.”
Factors outside the healthcare system, such as income, education and housing, also can significantly impact health outcomes. Greater efforts to address these disparities are needed to achieve health equity.
This issue is particularly pressing in Indigenous populations, which in Canada often experience severe health disparities compared to non-Indigenous populations. These disparities are partly due to their rural locations, as well as other factors mentioned above. Addressing these disparities requires targeted policies that consider the unique needs and challenges faced by Indigenous communities, and some progress has been made in this area in recent years.
Access to mental health services has been an ongoing concern. Mental health issues require comprehensive and accessible services, but improvements in this area have been slow to materialize.
The lack of universal prescription drug coverage is another area where disparities in access to healthcare can arise. Some individuals may face challenges affording necessary medications, although a new program has been promised as part of a power-sharing arrangement in Parliament between the minority Liberal government and the opposition NDP party (Martin et al. 2018).
Citations:
Martin, Danielle, Ashley P. Miller, Amélie Quesnel-Vallée, Nadine R. Caron, Bilkis Vissandjée, and Gregory P. Marchildon. 2018. “Canada’s Universal Health-Care System: Achieving Its Potential.” Lancet 391 (10131): 1718–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30181-8
Long wait times for certain medical procedures have been a concern in Canada. While the system aims to provide equal access to care, some individuals may face delays in receiving specific treatments, potentially affecting the overall quality of healthcare. This situation allows high-income patients to seek services in other provinces or countries, undermining the principle of equal access.
“Primary care access is crucial for preventing and managing health conditions, and securing an adequate supply of general practitioners has proven challenging for many Canadian governments.”
Factors outside the healthcare system, such as income, education and housing, also can significantly impact health outcomes. Greater efforts to address these disparities are needed to achieve health equity.
This issue is particularly pressing in Indigenous populations, which in Canada often experience severe health disparities compared to non-Indigenous populations. These disparities are partly due to their rural locations, as well as other factors mentioned above. Addressing these disparities requires targeted policies that consider the unique needs and challenges faced by Indigenous communities, and some progress has been made in this area in recent years.
Access to mental health services has been an ongoing concern. Mental health issues require comprehensive and accessible services, but improvements in this area have been slow to materialize.
The lack of universal prescription drug coverage is another area where disparities in access to healthcare can arise. Some individuals may face challenges affording necessary medications, although a new program has been promised as part of a power-sharing arrangement in Parliament between the minority Liberal government and the opposition NDP party (Martin et al. 2018).
Citations:
Martin, Danielle, Ashley P. Miller, Amélie Quesnel-Vallée, Nadine R. Caron, Bilkis Vissandjée, and Gregory P. Marchildon. 2018. “Canada’s Universal Health-Care System: Achieving Its Potential.” Lancet 391 (10131): 1718–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30181-8
Graph View
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
10
9
9
The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
2
1
1
The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
Canada has been actively working toward gender equality through various policies and initiatives. The federal government has committed to advancing gender equality and addressing issues such as pay equity, violence against women, and women’s representation in leadership roles. Responsibility for gender equality initiatives is distributed across various government departments and agencies. Status of Women Canada, a federal department, has historically played a key role. The government emphasizes collaboration and coordination across different departments to ensure a comprehensive approach (Hankivsky 2013).
One key development has been the inclusion of Gender-Based Analysis Plus (GBA+) in government policy assessment. GBA+ is a tool used by the Canadian government to evaluate how different groups of women, men, and gender-diverse people may experience policies, programs, and initiatives. It aims to ensure that diverse perspectives are considered in decision-making but is often ignored or given only lip service (Cameron and Tedds 2023).
Canada also has a National Action Plan to implement the United Nations Security Council Resolutions on Women, Peace, and Security (WPS). This plan includes efforts to address gender-based violence and promote women’s participation in conflict prevention and resolution.
The government has introduced legislation to address the gender wage gap by ensuring equal pay for work of equal value in federally regulated workplaces. It has made some progress in reducing disparities, often through significant payouts to discriminated workers.
There is also a Women Entrepreneurship Strategy (WES) designed to help women start and grow their businesses. This strategy includes funding, support for women entrepreneurs, and initiatives to increase the number of women-owned businesses.
Canada uses various indicators to measure progress toward gender equality, including data on income, workforce participation, representation in leadership roles, and other relevant metrics. The government regularly updates and refines these indicators to improve measurement accuracy and comprehensiveness.
While Canada has made strides in promoting gender equality, challenges persist. Critics argue that progress is slow and more needs to be done to address systemic barriers and disparities. The effectiveness of policies can vary, and ongoing evaluation and adjustments are often necessary.
Citations:
https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/women-entrepreneurship-strategy/en
Cameron, Anna I., and Lindsay M. Tedds. 2023. “Canada’s GBA+ Framework in a (Post)Pandemic World: Issues, Tensions and Paths Forward.” Canadian Public Administration 66 (1): 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/capa.12508
Hankivsky, Olena. 2013. “Gender Mainstreaming: A Five-Country Examination.” Politics & Policy 41 (5): 629-55.
One key development has been the inclusion of Gender-Based Analysis Plus (GBA+) in government policy assessment. GBA+ is a tool used by the Canadian government to evaluate how different groups of women, men, and gender-diverse people may experience policies, programs, and initiatives. It aims to ensure that diverse perspectives are considered in decision-making but is often ignored or given only lip service (Cameron and Tedds 2023).
Canada also has a National Action Plan to implement the United Nations Security Council Resolutions on Women, Peace, and Security (WPS). This plan includes efforts to address gender-based violence and promote women’s participation in conflict prevention and resolution.
The government has introduced legislation to address the gender wage gap by ensuring equal pay for work of equal value in federally regulated workplaces. It has made some progress in reducing disparities, often through significant payouts to discriminated workers.
There is also a Women Entrepreneurship Strategy (WES) designed to help women start and grow their businesses. This strategy includes funding, support for women entrepreneurs, and initiatives to increase the number of women-owned businesses.
Canada uses various indicators to measure progress toward gender equality, including data on income, workforce participation, representation in leadership roles, and other relevant metrics. The government regularly updates and refines these indicators to improve measurement accuracy and comprehensiveness.
While Canada has made strides in promoting gender equality, challenges persist. Critics argue that progress is slow and more needs to be done to address systemic barriers and disparities. The effectiveness of policies can vary, and ongoing evaluation and adjustments are often necessary.
Citations:
https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/women-entrepreneurship-strategy/en
Cameron, Anna I., and Lindsay M. Tedds. 2023. “Canada’s GBA+ Framework in a (Post)Pandemic World: Issues, Tensions and Paths Forward.” Canadian Public Administration 66 (1): 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/capa.12508
Hankivsky, Olena. 2013. “Gender Mainstreaming: A Five-Country Examination.” Politics & Policy 41 (5): 629-55.
Graph View
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
10
9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
8
7
6
7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
4
3
4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
Canada has a fairly family-friendly policy and tax system. Maternity leave is offered through the employment insurance (EI) program, allowing eligible individuals to take up to 15 weeks of maternity leave with partial wage replacement. In addition to maternity leave, there is parental leave that can be shared between parents, providing an additional 35 weeks of leave. Canada also has various financial support programs for families, often run through the tax system. These include the Canada Child Benefit (CCB), which provides tax-free monthly payments to eligible families to help with the cost of raising children. There are also additional supplements for families with children with disabilities.
In addition to maternity and parental leave, the Canadian government provides compassionate care leave under the EI program. This provision allows eligible individuals to take up to 27 weeks of leave to care for a family member who has a serious medical condition with a significant risk of death within 26 weeks.
Childcare services are subpar outside of Quebec, which has a state-run pre-kindergarten daycare system at modest prices. Daycare is primarily the responsibility of provinces and territories, resulting in variations in availability and affordability. The federal government has made a $27 billion investment over five years to support the expansion of affordable childcare in provinces and territories and has now signed Early Learning and Childhood agreements with all provinces and territories. Some provinces have implemented subsidized childcare programs. However, universal access to high-quality and affordable childcare remains an aspiration at best (Prentice 2006).
Citations:
https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/child-family-benefits/canada-child-benefit-overview.html
Prentice, Susan. 2006. “Childcare, Co-Production and the Third Sector in Canada.” Public Management Review 8 (4): 521-36.
https://www.canada.ca/en/early-learning-child-care-agreement/agreements-provinces-territories.html
https://doi.org/10.1080/14719030601022890
In addition to maternity and parental leave, the Canadian government provides compassionate care leave under the EI program. This provision allows eligible individuals to take up to 27 weeks of leave to care for a family member who has a serious medical condition with a significant risk of death within 26 weeks.
Childcare services are subpar outside of Quebec, which has a state-run pre-kindergarten daycare system at modest prices. Daycare is primarily the responsibility of provinces and territories, resulting in variations in availability and affordability. The federal government has made a $27 billion investment over five years to support the expansion of affordable childcare in provinces and territories and has now signed Early Learning and Childhood agreements with all provinces and territories. Some provinces have implemented subsidized childcare programs. However, universal access to high-quality and affordable childcare remains an aspiration at best (Prentice 2006).
Citations:
https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/services/child-family-benefits/canada-child-benefit-overview.html
Prentice, Susan. 2006. “Childcare, Co-Production and the Third Sector in Canada.” Public Management Review 8 (4): 521-36.
https://www.canada.ca/en/early-learning-child-care-agreement/agreements-provinces-territories.html
https://doi.org/10.1080/14719030601022890
Graph View
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
Before the creation of Canada’s modern federal public pension programs in the early 1950s and mid-1960s, elderly poverty was very high. However, since the system’s consolidation in the mid-to-late 1960s, the modern Canadian public pension system has been quite effective in reducing poverty among the elderly. For individuals over 70 years of age in the lowest quintile of the earnings distribution, the proportion of working income “replaced” by retirement income is nearly 100% (Deaton 1989).
The basic components of Canada’s public pension retirement-income system are the Old Age Security (OAS) demogrant, the income-tested Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS), and the contribution-fed, earnings-based Canada/Quebec Pension Plan (CPP/QPP). Benefits are capped at a percentage of the poverty rate, with the aim of preventing old-age poverty.
Other tiers of the pension system include employer pension plans (both defined-benefit and defined-contribution plans) and government incentive programs for individual saving, such as Registered Retirement Savings Plans (RRSPs) and Tax-Free Savings Accounts (TFSAs).
Since 1995, incomes for the elderly at the bottom have been growing, although not as quickly as those for the rest of the population. Using Statistics Canada’s Low-Income Cutoff (LICO) measure of poverty, an absolute definition, the poverty rate for people aged 65 and over was 4.7% in 2016, one of the lowest rates ever recorded in the history of the series. In contrast, Statistics Canada’s Low-Income Measure (LIM), a relative poverty definition, shows senior poverty rates have been on an upward trend in recent years, increasing from a low of 3.9% in 1995 to 14.2% in 2016. Old Age Security (OAS) and the Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS) were temporarily boosted during the pandemic. The 2021 federal budget announced a 10% increase in old-age security benefits once recipients turn 75, which is estimated to reduce poverty in this age group by 14.5%.
Even with the recent benefits and contribution expansion, the CPP/QPP is projected to replace only a third of the average wage up to a ceiling that will reach CAD 82,700 in 2025. Thus, middle- and upper-income workers without an employer pension plan or private savings may not be able to replace a sufficient proportion of their pre-retirement earnings. In the private sector, this issue affects three in four workers (Weaver 2016).
Citations:
Deaton, R. L. 1989. The Political Economy of Pensions: Power, Politics, and Social Change in Canada, Britain and the United States. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Weaver, R. Kent. 2016. “Privileging Policy Change? Sustaining Automatic Stabilizing Mechanisms in Public Pensions.” Social Policy & Administration 50 (2): 148-64. https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12208
The basic components of Canada’s public pension retirement-income system are the Old Age Security (OAS) demogrant, the income-tested Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS), and the contribution-fed, earnings-based Canada/Quebec Pension Plan (CPP/QPP). Benefits are capped at a percentage of the poverty rate, with the aim of preventing old-age poverty.
Other tiers of the pension system include employer pension plans (both defined-benefit and defined-contribution plans) and government incentive programs for individual saving, such as Registered Retirement Savings Plans (RRSPs) and Tax-Free Savings Accounts (TFSAs).
Since 1995, incomes for the elderly at the bottom have been growing, although not as quickly as those for the rest of the population. Using Statistics Canada’s Low-Income Cutoff (LICO) measure of poverty, an absolute definition, the poverty rate for people aged 65 and over was 4.7% in 2016, one of the lowest rates ever recorded in the history of the series. In contrast, Statistics Canada’s Low-Income Measure (LIM), a relative poverty definition, shows senior poverty rates have been on an upward trend in recent years, increasing from a low of 3.9% in 1995 to 14.2% in 2016. Old Age Security (OAS) and the Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS) were temporarily boosted during the pandemic. The 2021 federal budget announced a 10% increase in old-age security benefits once recipients turn 75, which is estimated to reduce poverty in this age group by 14.5%.
Even with the recent benefits and contribution expansion, the CPP/QPP is projected to replace only a third of the average wage up to a ceiling that will reach CAD 82,700 in 2025. Thus, middle- and upper-income workers without an employer pension plan or private savings may not be able to replace a sufficient proportion of their pre-retirement earnings. In the private sector, this issue affects three in four workers (Weaver 2016).
Citations:
Deaton, R. L. 1989. The Political Economy of Pensions: Power, Politics, and Social Change in Canada, Britain and the United States. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Weaver, R. Kent. 2016. “Privileging Policy Change? Sustaining Automatic Stabilizing Mechanisms in Public Pensions.” Social Policy & Administration 50 (2): 148-64. https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12208
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
Intergenerational equity can be influenced by the sustainability of pension programs. Canada, like many other developed nations, faces demographic challenges, including an aging population and a relatively low birth rate. This can impact the financial sustainability of pension programs, raising questions about the burden on future generations to fund pensions for the growing elderly population.
Canada has a multi-tiered pension system that includes both public and private components, as well as federal and provincial plans. The two major public pension programs in most of the country are the Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Old Age Security (OAS). Quebec opted out of CPP when it was created in the mid-1960s and has since operated its own Quebec Pension Plan, which is very similar to CPP in terms of social benefits (Simeon 1972; Banting 1982).
The CPP and QPP are contributory, earnings-related social insurance programs that provide retirement, disability, and survivor benefits. They are designed to replace a limited portion of individuals’ earnings upon retirement. The CPP and QPP operate on a contributory basis, meaning that individuals contribute a portion of their earnings throughout their working years. The benefits received in retirement are tied to those contributions and matched by employers.
Recently, both CPP and QPP contributions have been increased to grant higher pensions to people who will retire several decades from now. The CPP and QPP are also fiscally sound for the predictable future, with stable anticipated contribution rates for decades to come (Béland and Weaver, 2019).
Old Age Security (OAS): OAS is a universal, non-contributory pension available to Canadians aged 65 and older. It provides a basic level of income support and, since it is inflation-adjusted, has taken on an increasingly significant role in the system.
Governments commonly implement reforms or adjustments to pension programs to address changing demographics and economic conditions.
Citations:
Banting, K. G. 1982. The Welfare State and Canadian Federalism. Kingston: Queen’s University Institute of Intergovernmental Relations.
Béland, D., and R. K. Weaver. “Federalism and the Politics of the”
Richez, Emmanuelle. 2019. “Canada and Quebec Pension Plans.” Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy 35 (1): 25-40.
Simeon, Richard. 1972. Federal-Provincial Diplomacy: The Making of Recent Policy in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division.
Canada has a multi-tiered pension system that includes both public and private components, as well as federal and provincial plans. The two major public pension programs in most of the country are the Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and Old Age Security (OAS). Quebec opted out of CPP when it was created in the mid-1960s and has since operated its own Quebec Pension Plan, which is very similar to CPP in terms of social benefits (Simeon 1972; Banting 1982).
The CPP and QPP are contributory, earnings-related social insurance programs that provide retirement, disability, and survivor benefits. They are designed to replace a limited portion of individuals’ earnings upon retirement. The CPP and QPP operate on a contributory basis, meaning that individuals contribute a portion of their earnings throughout their working years. The benefits received in retirement are tied to those contributions and matched by employers.
Recently, both CPP and QPP contributions have been increased to grant higher pensions to people who will retire several decades from now. The CPP and QPP are also fiscally sound for the predictable future, with stable anticipated contribution rates for decades to come (Béland and Weaver, 2019).
Old Age Security (OAS): OAS is a universal, non-contributory pension available to Canadians aged 65 and older. It provides a basic level of income support and, since it is inflation-adjusted, has taken on an increasingly significant role in the system.
Governments commonly implement reforms or adjustments to pension programs to address changing demographics and economic conditions.
Citations:
Banting, K. G. 1982. The Welfare State and Canadian Federalism. Kingston: Queen’s University Institute of Intergovernmental Relations.
Béland, D., and R. K. Weaver. “Federalism and the Politics of the”
Richez, Emmanuelle. 2019. “Canada and Quebec Pension Plans.” Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy 35 (1): 25-40.
Simeon, Richard. 1972. Federal-Provincial Diplomacy: The Making of Recent Policy in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division.
Graph View
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
10
9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Migration is currently very important to Canada, which has doubled its intake of immigrants from just a few years ago (Triadafilopoulos 2013). Canada also has an official policy of multiculturalism that celebrates and supports the cultural diversity of its population. This policy aims to promote inclusivity and encourages the preservation of cultural heritage while fostering a shared Canadian identity, including among new immigrants.
Several methods exist for entry to the country. The Express Entry system is designed to attract skilled immigrants to immediately contribute to the country’s economic development. It prioritizes factors such as education, work experience, and language proficiency, facilitating the integration of skilled migrants into the labor market. Provincial Nominee Programs (PNPs) allow provinces and territories to nominate individuals with specific skills and experiences for permanent residence, enabling regions to address their specific labor market needs. Canada also has programs for refugees and has implemented policies to support their integration.
Canadian governments invest heavily in settlement services to help newcomers adapt to life in Canada, including language training, employment support, and orientation programs to ease the transition into Canadian society. New policies have also been implemented at the federal, provincial, and municipal levels to address the ongoing affordability crisis in housing, which is especially challenging in a country with a very limited social housing sector.
Many services are available, but they are being stretched by the influx of individuals and families under the new policy. Problems include a lack of credential recognition, whereby some newcomers, especially professionals, face challenges in having their foreign credentials recognized in the Canadian labor market. Efforts have been made to address this issue, but barriers still exist in many professions. Additionally, limited job opportunities in specific regions outside the hubs of Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver cause settlement problems. Many regions face challenges in providing sufficient job opportunities for local populations, potentially affecting migrants’ integration in those areas. Furthermore, other areas of the country, particularly Vancouver and Toronto, receive the largest share of immigrants. This aggravates situations where housing and other services are already expensive and difficult to access. High housing costs are a challenge for newcomers and raise concerns among local populations about the influx of non-residents.
Citations:
Triadafilopoulos, Triadafilos, ed. 2013. Wanted and Welcome?: Policies for Highly Skilled Immigrants in Comparative Perspective. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0082-0
Several methods exist for entry to the country. The Express Entry system is designed to attract skilled immigrants to immediately contribute to the country’s economic development. It prioritizes factors such as education, work experience, and language proficiency, facilitating the integration of skilled migrants into the labor market. Provincial Nominee Programs (PNPs) allow provinces and territories to nominate individuals with specific skills and experiences for permanent residence, enabling regions to address their specific labor market needs. Canada also has programs for refugees and has implemented policies to support their integration.
Canadian governments invest heavily in settlement services to help newcomers adapt to life in Canada, including language training, employment support, and orientation programs to ease the transition into Canadian society. New policies have also been implemented at the federal, provincial, and municipal levels to address the ongoing affordability crisis in housing, which is especially challenging in a country with a very limited social housing sector.
Many services are available, but they are being stretched by the influx of individuals and families under the new policy. Problems include a lack of credential recognition, whereby some newcomers, especially professionals, face challenges in having their foreign credentials recognized in the Canadian labor market. Efforts have been made to address this issue, but barriers still exist in many professions. Additionally, limited job opportunities in specific regions outside the hubs of Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver cause settlement problems. Many regions face challenges in providing sufficient job opportunities for local populations, potentially affecting migrants’ integration in those areas. Furthermore, other areas of the country, particularly Vancouver and Toronto, receive the largest share of immigrants. This aggravates situations where housing and other services are already expensive and difficult to access. High housing costs are a challenge for newcomers and raise concerns among local populations about the influx of non-residents.
Citations:
Triadafilopoulos, Triadafilos, ed. 2013. Wanted and Welcome?: Policies for Highly Skilled Immigrants in Comparative Perspective. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0082-0
Graph View
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
Development assistance provided by the Canadian government is typically targeted toward capacity-building. Since World War II, Canada has committed a portion of its budget to Official Development Assistance, which includes funding for programs and projects aimed at poverty reduction, healthcare, education, and sustainable development in partner countries. More recently, Canada has actively participated in global health initiatives, including efforts to combat infectious diseases, improve maternal and child health, and strengthen healthcare systems during the COVID-19 pandemic. Still, Canada currently spends less than 0.4% of its Gross National Income (GNI) on Official Development Assistance (ODA), which is significantly lower than the United Nations’ target of 0.7%.
Global Affairs Canada (GAC), the government department responsible for international relations and development, plays a key role in implementing Canada’s international assistance policies and programs. GAC frequently collaborates with international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other countries to address global challenges. These collaborations often focus on poverty reduction, health, education, and social protection.
New developments add concerns such as gender equity to this mix. Canada now places a strong emphasis on promoting gender equality and empowering women and girls as a central component of its international assistance efforts. In 2017, Canada launched its Feminist International Assistance Policy (IAP), which aims to reduce poverty and promote gender equality in developing countries. The policy emphasizes the importance of empowering women and girls, addressing climate change, and promoting inclusive economic growth.
Addressing climate change and promoting sustainable development are integral parts of Canada’s commitment to international assistance. Canada provides substantial humanitarian aid in response to crises and disasters, contributing to social protection and poverty alleviation in affected regions.
Citations:
https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/priorities-priorites/policy-politique.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.oecd.org/development/development-co-operation-profiles-2dcf1367-en.htm
Global Affairs Canada (GAC), the government department responsible for international relations and development, plays a key role in implementing Canada’s international assistance policies and programs. GAC frequently collaborates with international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other countries to address global challenges. These collaborations often focus on poverty reduction, health, education, and social protection.
New developments add concerns such as gender equity to this mix. Canada now places a strong emphasis on promoting gender equality and empowering women and girls as a central component of its international assistance efforts. In 2017, Canada launched its Feminist International Assistance Policy (IAP), which aims to reduce poverty and promote gender equality in developing countries. The policy emphasizes the importance of empowering women and girls, addressing climate change, and promoting inclusive economic growth.
Addressing climate change and promoting sustainable development are integral parts of Canada’s commitment to international assistance. Canada provides substantial humanitarian aid in response to crises and disasters, contributing to social protection and poverty alleviation in affected regions.
Citations:
https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/priorities-priorites/policy-politique.aspx?lang=eng
https://www.oecd.org/development/development-co-operation-profiles-2dcf1367-en.htm