Social Sustainability
#21Key Findings
In the category of social sustainability, Estonia fall into the lower-middle ranks internationally (rank 21).
The school system is strong, with good PISA test results, low levels of inequality and high levels of public spending. The country’s welfare system prioritizes public services over cash benefits. Poverty rates, especially among the elderly and working poor, are higher than the OECD average.
Health spending has increased but remains below the OECD average. The healthcare system faces sustainability challenges due to a shrinking workforce and rising out-of-pocket costs. Gender inequality remains a significant issue, with Estonia having one of the largest gender pay gaps in Europe.
Family benefits are substantial, but prioritize stay-at-home parents. Preschool childcare is broadly available and reasonably affordable. Integration has historically been an issue centered on the minority Russian-speaking population, but a large number of refugees from Ukraine has entered the country since 2022. Integration of this group has been relatively successful.
The school system is strong, with good PISA test results, low levels of inequality and high levels of public spending. The country’s welfare system prioritizes public services over cash benefits. Poverty rates, especially among the elderly and working poor, are higher than the OECD average.
Health spending has increased but remains below the OECD average. The healthcare system faces sustainability challenges due to a shrinking workforce and rising out-of-pocket costs. Gender inequality remains a significant issue, with Estonia having one of the largest gender pay gaps in Europe.
Family benefits are substantial, but prioritize stay-at-home parents. Preschool childcare is broadly available and reasonably affordable. Integration has historically been an issue centered on the minority Russian-speaking population, but a large number of refugees from Ukraine has entered the country since 2022. Integration of this group has been relatively successful.
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To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
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Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
Estonians have traditionally placed a high value on education, as evidenced by high educational outcomes in venues such as OECD PISA test results, as well as the relatively high level of public expenditure in the education sector. System strengths include a small number of low achievers and a low level of educational inequality. This is seen in both the minimal effect of family background on educational performance and the negligible variance in performance and background between schools.
Estonia emphasizes comprehensive schooling and inclusive education in its predominantly public education system, ensuring adequate provision and financial resources. This approach results in high enrollment rates at all levels of the education system. Various social support measures are in place for students, such as free school lunches and school bus transportation.
During the pandemic-era school closures, which were as common in Estonia as in other countries on average (OECD 2023), the country’s relatively high level of digital literacy and existing IT infrastructure enabled a swift transition to online education. Although educational outcomes declined compared to the pre-COVID-19 period, the drop was small by international standards (ibid.).
National development strategies have long prioritized policy measures to strengthen links between education, training and the labor market, ensuring that the provision of education keeps pace with the changing needs of the economy. However, ethnic, gender and skill gaps in lifelong learning persist (HTM 2022), and the vocational route within the education system continues to suffer from a poor image, often making it the educational choice for the most disadvantaged (Haugas et al. 2023). Recent developments include the establishment of the OsKuS comprehensive skills and professional qualifications system, the expansion of work-based learning (e.g., World Skills), the integration of academic and vocational tracks, and the launch of micro-credentials.
Estonian schools have a long history of integrating sustainable development into their daily teaching and curriculum. However, according to a recent study (Schulz et al. 2023), while Estonian students are increasingly concerned about the climate crisis, their perceptions and behaviors still on average lag behind those of counterparts in mature welfare democracies. Moreover, existing educational gaps – ethnic, gender and socioeconomic – are reflected in gaps in sustainability awareness.
Citations:
Haridus – ja Teadusministeerium. 2022. Haridus-ja Teadusministeeriumi tulemusvaldkonna „Tark ja tegus rahvas” 2021. aasta tulemusaruanne. Tartu: HTM.
Haugas, S., Põder, K., and Lauri, T. 2023. Ühtekuuluvuspoliitika fondide rakenduskava 2014–2020 prioriteetse suuna „Ühiskonna vajadustele vastav haridus ja hea ettevalmistus osalemaks tööturul” tulemuslikkuse ja mõju hindamine. Praxis 2023. https://www.praxis.ee/tood/ukphindamine/
National Audit Office. 2022. “The Reorganisation of the Upper Secondary School Network Needs Clear Criteria.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/Kontaktid/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tajad/T%C3%B6%C3%B6taja/tabid/215/Audit/2549/WorkerId/12/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
Schulz, W., Fraillon, J., Losito, B., Agrusti, G., Ainley, J., Damiani, V., and Friedman, T. 2023. IEA.
International Civic and Citizenship Education Study. 2022. ICCS 2022 International Report. Amsterdam: IEA.
Estonia emphasizes comprehensive schooling and inclusive education in its predominantly public education system, ensuring adequate provision and financial resources. This approach results in high enrollment rates at all levels of the education system. Various social support measures are in place for students, such as free school lunches and school bus transportation.
During the pandemic-era school closures, which were as common in Estonia as in other countries on average (OECD 2023), the country’s relatively high level of digital literacy and existing IT infrastructure enabled a swift transition to online education. Although educational outcomes declined compared to the pre-COVID-19 period, the drop was small by international standards (ibid.).
National development strategies have long prioritized policy measures to strengthen links between education, training and the labor market, ensuring that the provision of education keeps pace with the changing needs of the economy. However, ethnic, gender and skill gaps in lifelong learning persist (HTM 2022), and the vocational route within the education system continues to suffer from a poor image, often making it the educational choice for the most disadvantaged (Haugas et al. 2023). Recent developments include the establishment of the OsKuS comprehensive skills and professional qualifications system, the expansion of work-based learning (e.g., World Skills), the integration of academic and vocational tracks, and the launch of micro-credentials.
Estonian schools have a long history of integrating sustainable development into their daily teaching and curriculum. However, according to a recent study (Schulz et al. 2023), while Estonian students are increasingly concerned about the climate crisis, their perceptions and behaviors still on average lag behind those of counterparts in mature welfare democracies. Moreover, existing educational gaps – ethnic, gender and socioeconomic – are reflected in gaps in sustainability awareness.
Citations:
Haridus – ja Teadusministeerium. 2022. Haridus-ja Teadusministeeriumi tulemusvaldkonna „Tark ja tegus rahvas” 2021. aasta tulemusaruanne. Tartu: HTM.
Haugas, S., Põder, K., and Lauri, T. 2023. Ühtekuuluvuspoliitika fondide rakenduskava 2014–2020 prioriteetse suuna „Ühiskonna vajadustele vastav haridus ja hea ettevalmistus osalemaks tööturul” tulemuslikkuse ja mõju hindamine. Praxis 2023. https://www.praxis.ee/tood/ukphindamine/
National Audit Office. 2022. “The Reorganisation of the Upper Secondary School Network Needs Clear Criteria.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/Kontaktid/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tajad/T%C3%B6%C3%B6taja/tabid/215/Audit/2549/WorkerId/12/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
Schulz, W., Fraillon, J., Losito, B., Agrusti, G., Ainley, J., Damiani, V., and Friedman, T. 2023. IEA.
International Civic and Citizenship Education Study. 2022. ICCS 2022 International Report. Amsterdam: IEA.
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
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Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
The public dominance of educational provision at all levels (only early childhood education and care has tuition fees, limited to 20% of the minimum) results in increasing demand for public expenditures in education. This demand is intensified by the expansion of tertiary education, the principle of inclusive schooling, and the Soviet-inherited basic school network. The growing inadequacy of the latter has been the target of reform for decades (NAO 2022), and a funding formula to compensate for regional disparities has kept rural and urban divides in educational performance relatively low.
Still, additional demands to integrate Ukrainian refugees’ children (there were 8,500 Ukrainian students in the Estonian school system in early 2023), public and “free” higher education, and security crises have placed a strong focus on the sustainability and quality of existing institutions, especially schools in remote areas. This has raised concerns over the shortage of teachers and their working conditions, but political promises to address these issues have proved hard to keep due to the security and energy crises, which have increased budgetary tensions.
The transition to Estonian-language education starting in 2024 – a long-needed reform to cope with the ethnic educational gap in Estonia (OECD 2023) – has created additional pressure in terms of requirements for teachers and the need for new investment.
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “The Reorganisation of the Upper Secondary School Network Needs Clear Criteria.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/Kontaktid/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tajad/T%C3%B6%C3%B6taja/tabid/215/Audit/2549/WorkerId/12/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
Still, additional demands to integrate Ukrainian refugees’ children (there were 8,500 Ukrainian students in the Estonian school system in early 2023), public and “free” higher education, and security crises have placed a strong focus on the sustainability and quality of existing institutions, especially schools in remote areas. This has raised concerns over the shortage of teachers and their working conditions, but political promises to address these issues have proved hard to keep due to the security and energy crises, which have increased budgetary tensions.
The transition to Estonian-language education starting in 2024 – a long-needed reform to cope with the ethnic educational gap in Estonia (OECD 2023) – has created additional pressure in terms of requirements for teachers and the need for new investment.
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “The Reorganisation of the Upper Secondary School Network Needs Clear Criteria.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/Kontaktid/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tajad/T%C3%B6%C3%B6taja/tabid/215/Audit/2549/WorkerId/12/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
Graph View
To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
In general, the Estonian welfare system combines contribution-based insurance (pension, health, unemployment) with a preference for public services over cash benefits. This approach means that, on average, people in Estonia have comparatively good access to and a high level of satisfaction with services such as education and security. However, the country underperforms in minimum-income-related indicators (OECD 2020). Furthermore, some benefits common in many other countries, such as housing benefits, are not provided in Estonia.
Wages continued to rise despite the economic downturn, slowing only in the last quarters of 2023. However, purchasing power remains lower than in 2021. Social transfers have not kept pace with wage increases, resulting in higher levels of relative poverty among retirees, the unemployed and families dependent on social benefits. Among the nonworking population, poverty is highest among the elderly. The working poor also face rising poverty rates. Consequently, levels of poverty and inequality remain higher than the OECD average. Compared to 2021, the share of people living at risk of poverty decreased by 0.3 percentage points, while the share of people living in absolute poverty increased by 2.1 percentage points (Statistics Estonia).
A specific cash benefit for people with low incomes in Estonia is the subsistence benefit, a benefit of last resort paid by local governments. The importance of the subsistence benefit increased in 2022 and 2023 compared to 2021 due to the rapid rise in prices and the Russian-Ukrainian war. Issues regarding the effective implementation of the subsistence benefit have led to disparities between municipalities in both the level of and the ease of access to the benefit (NAO 2023). Specifically, the calculation of the subsistence benefit is meant to account for housing costs, but often fails to cover actual housing costs. This leads to discrepancies between the subsistence level and the estimated subsistence minimum. Additionally, municipalities occasionally impose an unnecessary bureaucratic burden on applicants for the subsistence benefit.
Citations:
Baptista, I., and E. Marlier. 2020. “Access to Essential Services for People on Low Incomes in Europe – An Analysis of Policies in 35 Countries – 2020.” European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/93987
National Audit Office. 2023. Management of Subsistence Benefit as National Social.
assistance. https://www.riigikontroll.ee/tabid/215/Audit/3559/WorkerTab/Audit/WorkerId/71/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2020. “Executive summary.” In How’s Life? 2020: Measuring Well-being, OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/ea714361-en
Statistics Estonia. 2023. “Number of People Living in Absolute Poverty Rose by Two and a Half Times.” https://www.stat.ee/en/news/number-people-living-absolute-poverty-rose-two-and-half-times
Wages continued to rise despite the economic downturn, slowing only in the last quarters of 2023. However, purchasing power remains lower than in 2021. Social transfers have not kept pace with wage increases, resulting in higher levels of relative poverty among retirees, the unemployed and families dependent on social benefits. Among the nonworking population, poverty is highest among the elderly. The working poor also face rising poverty rates. Consequently, levels of poverty and inequality remain higher than the OECD average. Compared to 2021, the share of people living at risk of poverty decreased by 0.3 percentage points, while the share of people living in absolute poverty increased by 2.1 percentage points (Statistics Estonia).
A specific cash benefit for people with low incomes in Estonia is the subsistence benefit, a benefit of last resort paid by local governments. The importance of the subsistence benefit increased in 2022 and 2023 compared to 2021 due to the rapid rise in prices and the Russian-Ukrainian war. Issues regarding the effective implementation of the subsistence benefit have led to disparities between municipalities in both the level of and the ease of access to the benefit (NAO 2023). Specifically, the calculation of the subsistence benefit is meant to account for housing costs, but often fails to cover actual housing costs. This leads to discrepancies between the subsistence level and the estimated subsistence minimum. Additionally, municipalities occasionally impose an unnecessary bureaucratic burden on applicants for the subsistence benefit.
Citations:
Baptista, I., and E. Marlier. 2020. “Access to Essential Services for People on Low Incomes in Europe – An Analysis of Policies in 35 Countries – 2020.” European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Publications Office. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/93987
National Audit Office. 2023. Management of Subsistence Benefit as National Social.
assistance. https://www.riigikontroll.ee/tabid/215/Audit/3559/WorkerTab/Audit/WorkerId/71/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2020. “Executive summary.” In How’s Life? 2020: Measuring Well-being, OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1787/ea714361-en
Statistics Estonia. 2023. “Number of People Living in Absolute Poverty Rose by Two and a Half Times.” https://www.stat.ee/en/news/number-people-living-absolute-poverty-rose-two-and-half-times
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
Overall, anti-poverty policy remained unchanged in 2019 – 2021. Some temporary support schemes were introduced at the end of 2021 to compensate for the sharp increase in living costs due to rising energy and electricity prices. In 2022 a temporary energy compensation scheme was implemented, and the debate about the concept of energy poverty began to emerge. Although the social exclusion of ethnic minorities decreased, partly due to government integration programs, unemployment and poverty rates remain somewhat higher among minority groups. Levels of subjective inequality among the Russian minority are significantly higher than among Estonians.
Regarding benefits in kind, free bus transport, available in the capital city since 2013 and later expanded, now serves 11 out of 15 counties in Estonia (EC 2020). This initiative aimed to improve access to services and jobs for people in rural areas. However, the recent budgetary situation has raised concerns about its inefficiency, prompting proposals to abolish it.
The “last mile” project has enhanced the country’s digital infrastructure in an attempt to bring high-speed broadband to remote areas. However, as of 2022 – 2023, approximately 8% of households, primarily in rural areas, still lacked modern internet access. These households must wait for agreements between municipalities and network builders to finalize the project for end-users.
Regarding benefits in kind, free bus transport, available in the capital city since 2013 and later expanded, now serves 11 out of 15 counties in Estonia (EC 2020). This initiative aimed to improve access to services and jobs for people in rural areas. However, the recent budgetary situation has raised concerns about its inefficiency, prompting proposals to abolish it.
The “last mile” project has enhanced the country’s digital infrastructure in an attempt to bring high-speed broadband to remote areas. However, as of 2022 – 2023, approximately 8% of households, primarily in rural areas, still lacked modern internet access. These households must wait for agreements between municipalities and network builders to finalize the project for end-users.
Graph View
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
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Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
Estonia has a solidary health insurance system that includes some non-Bismarckian features, such as general practitioners. In 2022, the Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF) covered 96% of the population. Eligibility is determined by regulation and, for the majority of the population, is linked to employment, pensioner or child status, or the individual’s membership in a socially vulnerable group. Those with insecure or informal jobs are more likely to be uninsured (OECD 2023).
Health expenditure has recently grown, but as a percentage of GDP, it remains below the OECD average. There has long been concern that the Estonian health financing system, based on a health insurance fund, is not sustainable due to a shrinking working-age population and the increasing prevalence of flexible employment (see also “Sustainable Taxation”). Starting in 2022, the state began transferring 13% of pensions on behalf of nonworking pensioners to the EHIF to supplement the existing earmarked payroll tax of 13% paid by employers. Still, the share of the population reporting unmet medical needs is 8% – four times higher than the OECD average (OECD 2023). According to the latest National Audit Report (NAO2022), the population is likely to have to accept that the availability and quality of health services will not consistently meet expected levels in the near future due to both a shortage of health professionals and a lack of funding.
Digital tools, such as personalized ehealth portals and teleconsultation, which were already growing practices before COVID-19, have increased and improved access to care. Additionally, the resilience of the health system during COVID-19 was commendable, and several other health indicators, like low infant mortality, underscore the quality of the Estonian health system.
However, while recent changes have sought to increase the flexibility of medical education, the shortage of health workers remains an issue (NOA 2022) due both to low enrollment in university medical programs and high rates of physician burnout, a trend accelerated by the COVID-19 crisis. Furthermore, the number of physicians per capita is lower than the OECD average.
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “Healthcare trends in Estonia.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/tabid/215/Audit/3555/WorkerTab/Audit/WorkerId/40/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Estonia Country Health Profile 2023.” https://www.oecd.org/estonia/estonia-country-health-profile-2023-bc733713-en.htm
Health expenditure has recently grown, but as a percentage of GDP, it remains below the OECD average. There has long been concern that the Estonian health financing system, based on a health insurance fund, is not sustainable due to a shrinking working-age population and the increasing prevalence of flexible employment (see also “Sustainable Taxation”). Starting in 2022, the state began transferring 13% of pensions on behalf of nonworking pensioners to the EHIF to supplement the existing earmarked payroll tax of 13% paid by employers. Still, the share of the population reporting unmet medical needs is 8% – four times higher than the OECD average (OECD 2023). According to the latest National Audit Report (NAO2022), the population is likely to have to accept that the availability and quality of health services will not consistently meet expected levels in the near future due to both a shortage of health professionals and a lack of funding.
Digital tools, such as personalized ehealth portals and teleconsultation, which were already growing practices before COVID-19, have increased and improved access to care. Additionally, the resilience of the health system during COVID-19 was commendable, and several other health indicators, like low infant mortality, underscore the quality of the Estonian health system.
However, while recent changes have sought to increase the flexibility of medical education, the shortage of health workers remains an issue (NOA 2022) due both to low enrollment in university medical programs and high rates of physician burnout, a trend accelerated by the COVID-19 crisis. Furthermore, the number of physicians per capita is lower than the OECD average.
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “Healthcare trends in Estonia.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/tabid/215/Audit/3555/WorkerTab/Audit/WorkerId/40/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Estonia Country Health Profile 2023.” https://www.oecd.org/estonia/estonia-country-health-profile-2023-bc733713-en.htm
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
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Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
Health promotion and disease prevention are increasingly important priorities for the Estonian Health Insurance Fund (EHIF), and the share of resources dedicated to preventive healthcare has recently doubled. The National Health Plan 2020 – 2030 continues to emphasize the importance of prevention, and deaths from preventable and treatable causes have steadily decreased. However, smoking prevalence, alcohol consumption and obesity rates are all above the EU average. Additionally, the rate of children’s vaccinations is relatively low and decreasing. At the same time, the number of deaths from air pollution remains low.
To address the mental health issues accelerated by the COVID-19 crisis, Estonia began centrally coordinating mental health policy in 2022. The country has set priorities for action to strengthen the provision of mental health services, and has launched prevention and mental health promotion efforts.
Recent health system reforms have introduced financial incentives for multidisciplinary primary healthcare centers and primary care networks that provide better access to services. A 2023 health system performance assessment encouraged the development of a sustainable governance plan. This plan makes use of abundant available healthcare data for purposes such as service integration, clinical decision-making and outcome measurement (OECD, 2023).
Citations:
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Estonia Country Health Profile 2023.” https://www.oecd.org/estonia/estonia-country-health-profile-2023-bc733713-en.htm
To address the mental health issues accelerated by the COVID-19 crisis, Estonia began centrally coordinating mental health policy in 2022. The country has set priorities for action to strengthen the provision of mental health services, and has launched prevention and mental health promotion efforts.
Recent health system reforms have introduced financial incentives for multidisciplinary primary healthcare centers and primary care networks that provide better access to services. A 2023 health system performance assessment encouraged the development of a sustainable governance plan. This plan makes use of abundant available healthcare data for purposes such as service integration, clinical decision-making and outcome measurement (OECD, 2023).
Citations:
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Estonia Country Health Profile 2023.” https://www.oecd.org/estonia/estonia-country-health-profile-2023-bc733713-en.htm
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
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Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
Health inequality between different socioeconomic groups and regional disparities remain an issue in the Estonian healthcare system (NAO 2022). The share of out-of-pocket expenditure is high (22%) and leaves the most disadvantaged groups without access to treatment. Additionally, several healthcare policy risks, including behavioral risk factors such as tobacco smoking, dietary risks, alcohol consumption and low levels of physical activity, as well as outputs like life expectancy, self-reported health status and unmet healthcare needs, exhibit a strong socioeconomic gradient.
Health workforce shortages are being addressed but remain an urgent policy issue, and are likely to test the resilience of the health system. Currently, the limited availability of specialist care and family medical care means that patients who should be treated either in a hospital or by a family physician end up in inpatient nursing care or emergency medicine departments (EMD).
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “Healthcare Trends in Estonia.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/tabid/215/Audit/3555/WorkerTab/Audit/WorkerId/40/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
Health workforce shortages are being addressed but remain an urgent policy issue, and are likely to test the resilience of the health system. Currently, the limited availability of specialist care and family medical care means that patients who should be treated either in a hospital or by a family physician end up in inpatient nursing care or emergency medicine departments (EMD).
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “Healthcare Trends in Estonia.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/tabid/215/Audit/3555/WorkerTab/Audit/WorkerId/40/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
Graph View
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
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The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
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The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
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The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
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The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
The legal framework for gender equality is enshrined in the Estonian constitution, which states that everyone is equal before the law and that no one may be discriminated against on the basis of sex. The legal framework includes the Gender Equality Act (2004) and the Equal Treatment Act (2009). There is also a National Strategy for Gender Equality, which is included in the Welfare Development Plan and implemented through the Gender Equality Programs.
In the Welfare Development Plan for 2023 – 2030, the core indicators of the sub-goal of gender equality and equal treatment are related to different groups’ perceptions of discrimination, the gender pay gap and accessibility.
The Ministry of Social Affairs oversees equal treatment and promotes equality between women and men, with the Department of Equality Policy tasked with this responsibility. The department, led by the Commissioner for Gender Equality and Equal Treatment (GEETC), is mandated to advance gender equality as well as other equality concerns. However, the majority of complaints – more than 60% – pertain to gender equality, primarily focusing on the gender gap in unpaid work and rights during and after pregnancy and maternity leave (GEETC 2023).
Gender equality has been a long-standing challenge in Estonia, reflected in one of the largest gender pay gaps in Europe. While the government’s commitment to promoting gender equality is relatively high (EIGE 2022), its effectiveness in combating gender pay gaps and labor market inequalities has been limited. According to the latest EIGE statistics, Estonia has fallen in the gender equality index rankings.
In addition to the gender pay gap, Estonia experiences a relatively high motherhood penalty and fatherhood premium (REGE), with inequalities in time-related behaviors that intersect with socioeconomic backgrounds (e.g., gaps are larger among lower socioeconomic groups). In health behavior and education, the gap favors women, which is also reflected in life expectancy statistics, with women having significantly higher life expectancies than men. Given the low pension levels, this often results in long periods of widowhood and a very high risk of poverty for women.
The higher level of tertiary education among women is not mirrored in their wages or power relations. In terms of power, women are particularly disadvantaged and significantly underrepresented on the boards of the most important decision-making bodies in Estonia across all spheres – social, economic and political.
However, there has been a gradual improvement in political representation. The number of female members of parliament and ministers has increased over time, and Estonia has had a female prime minister for more than three years.
Nevertheless, 2023 was an important year for equality, as same-sex marriage became legal in Estonia. The government elected in the March 2023 elections – led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas and consisting of the Reform Party, the Social Democrats and Estonia 200 – pledged to legalize same-sex marriage, a policy that was to take effect on 1 January 2024. The Registered Partnership Act (2016) has allowed same-sex couples to register their partnerships, but secondary legislation has long been lacking due to strong opposition from conservative parties.
Citations:
Gender Equality and Equal Treatment Commissioner. 2023. “Annual Report of 2022.” https://volinik.ee/voliniku-tegevus/voliniku-tegevuste-ulevaade.html
EIGE. 2022. “Factsheet Estonia.” https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2022/country/EE
Täht, K., Roosalu, T., Unt, M., Aavik, K., Pilvre, B., Kääramees, M. 2022. “Sooline palgalõhe Eestis: kujunemise tagamaad ja vähendamise võimalused.” Programmi RITA tegevuse 1 projekti „Soolise palgalõhe vähendamine (REGE)” lõpparuanne. 1−91.
In the Welfare Development Plan for 2023 – 2030, the core indicators of the sub-goal of gender equality and equal treatment are related to different groups’ perceptions of discrimination, the gender pay gap and accessibility.
The Ministry of Social Affairs oversees equal treatment and promotes equality between women and men, with the Department of Equality Policy tasked with this responsibility. The department, led by the Commissioner for Gender Equality and Equal Treatment (GEETC), is mandated to advance gender equality as well as other equality concerns. However, the majority of complaints – more than 60% – pertain to gender equality, primarily focusing on the gender gap in unpaid work and rights during and after pregnancy and maternity leave (GEETC 2023).
Gender equality has been a long-standing challenge in Estonia, reflected in one of the largest gender pay gaps in Europe. While the government’s commitment to promoting gender equality is relatively high (EIGE 2022), its effectiveness in combating gender pay gaps and labor market inequalities has been limited. According to the latest EIGE statistics, Estonia has fallen in the gender equality index rankings.
In addition to the gender pay gap, Estonia experiences a relatively high motherhood penalty and fatherhood premium (REGE), with inequalities in time-related behaviors that intersect with socioeconomic backgrounds (e.g., gaps are larger among lower socioeconomic groups). In health behavior and education, the gap favors women, which is also reflected in life expectancy statistics, with women having significantly higher life expectancies than men. Given the low pension levels, this often results in long periods of widowhood and a very high risk of poverty for women.
The higher level of tertiary education among women is not mirrored in their wages or power relations. In terms of power, women are particularly disadvantaged and significantly underrepresented on the boards of the most important decision-making bodies in Estonia across all spheres – social, economic and political.
However, there has been a gradual improvement in political representation. The number of female members of parliament and ministers has increased over time, and Estonia has had a female prime minister for more than three years.
Nevertheless, 2023 was an important year for equality, as same-sex marriage became legal in Estonia. The government elected in the March 2023 elections – led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas and consisting of the Reform Party, the Social Democrats and Estonia 200 – pledged to legalize same-sex marriage, a policy that was to take effect on 1 January 2024. The Registered Partnership Act (2016) has allowed same-sex couples to register their partnerships, but secondary legislation has long been lacking due to strong opposition from conservative parties.
Citations:
Gender Equality and Equal Treatment Commissioner. 2023. “Annual Report of 2022.” https://volinik.ee/voliniku-tegevus/voliniku-tegevuste-ulevaade.html
EIGE. 2022. “Factsheet Estonia.” https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2022/country/EE
Täht, K., Roosalu, T., Unt, M., Aavik, K., Pilvre, B., Kääramees, M. 2022. “Sooline palgalõhe Eestis: kujunemise tagamaad ja vähendamise võimalused.” Programmi RITA tegevuse 1 projekti „Soolise palgalõhe vähendamine (REGE)” lõpparuanne. 1−91.
Graph View
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
10
9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
8
7
6
7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
4
3
4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
Estonia inherited a tradition of double-breadwinner families from Soviet times, during which mothers typically worked full time. Despite significant social changes, this family pattern has continued, as evidenced by the high female employment rate. However, the share of children born outside marriage has outnumbered that of those born within marriage in Estonia for decades, making its family model more similar to that of Nordic countries than to patterns seen in Western or Eastern European countries.
Family policy has remained high on the political agenda due to the country’s low fertility rate and labor market needs. The share of social spending devoted to family benefits is twice as high as in OECD countries on average. This high share is explained both by generous leave policies and universal child allowances.
Estonia has one of the most generous parental benefit systems in the OECD, entitling parents of newborns to benefits equal to their previous salary for 435 days (Pall 2023). This system, in place since 2004, has undergone several revisions to make it more flexible and gender-neutral. Recent amendments have extended the period in which parents can take parental leave from one and a half years to three years, and parental leave can now be divided into several periods according to the parents’ choice. Additionally, steps have been taken to increase fathers’ involvement in childcare by increasing the joint parental leave period and extending the leave reserved for fathers up to 30 days.
While parental leave is still predominantly taken by mothers (84%), the share of fathers taking leave has quickly risen (Pall 2023). However, these numbers do not necessarily reflect the actual level of parental leave taken by fathers, as most fathers continue working. This indicates that many fathers, although receiving the benefit, are not the primary caregivers. This reflects the high gender pay gap and regulations that allow individuals to receive 150% of the average wage plus the parental benefit simultaneously (Pall 2023).
Parental leave is dependent on previous salary. While there is an upper limit, the maximum benefit level is more than four times the minimum level. In addition to parental leave, child allowances are relatively generous. These allowances are universal by design, with extra allowances for larger families starting from the third child. However, given the generous parental leave and child allowances, the high share (12.7%) of single parents living in absolute poverty is worrisome. This suggests that family policies do not emphasize inclusivity. The generosity of parental leave has also affected young parents’ labor market situation, as the prospect that they may take long leaves might influence employers’ recruitment decisions.
While the parental benefit system prioritizes stay-at-home parents, access to preschool childcare is generally good and reasonably affordable. However, childcare has a tuition fee of up to 20% of the minimum salary, with the exact rate decided by municipalities. While municipalities are obliged to provide a childcare place starting at 18 months, not all can fully meet this obligation. Consequently, the share of preschoolers above age 3 is very high at 95%, but for those below age 3, it is only 21%.
Citations:
OECD Stats. 2019. “The OECD Social Expenditure Database.”
Pall, K. 2023. “Estonia Country Note.” In Blum, S., Dobrotić, I., Kaufman, G., Koslowski, A., and Moss, P., eds., International Review of Leave Policies and Research 2023. https://www.leavenetwork.org/annual-review-reports/
Statistics Estonia. 2023. “Absolute Poverty.” https://www.stat.ee/en/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/heaolu/sotsiaalne-torjutus-ja-vaesus/absolute-poverty
Family policy has remained high on the political agenda due to the country’s low fertility rate and labor market needs. The share of social spending devoted to family benefits is twice as high as in OECD countries on average. This high share is explained both by generous leave policies and universal child allowances.
Estonia has one of the most generous parental benefit systems in the OECD, entitling parents of newborns to benefits equal to their previous salary for 435 days (Pall 2023). This system, in place since 2004, has undergone several revisions to make it more flexible and gender-neutral. Recent amendments have extended the period in which parents can take parental leave from one and a half years to three years, and parental leave can now be divided into several periods according to the parents’ choice. Additionally, steps have been taken to increase fathers’ involvement in childcare by increasing the joint parental leave period and extending the leave reserved for fathers up to 30 days.
While parental leave is still predominantly taken by mothers (84%), the share of fathers taking leave has quickly risen (Pall 2023). However, these numbers do not necessarily reflect the actual level of parental leave taken by fathers, as most fathers continue working. This indicates that many fathers, although receiving the benefit, are not the primary caregivers. This reflects the high gender pay gap and regulations that allow individuals to receive 150% of the average wage plus the parental benefit simultaneously (Pall 2023).
Parental leave is dependent on previous salary. While there is an upper limit, the maximum benefit level is more than four times the minimum level. In addition to parental leave, child allowances are relatively generous. These allowances are universal by design, with extra allowances for larger families starting from the third child. However, given the generous parental leave and child allowances, the high share (12.7%) of single parents living in absolute poverty is worrisome. This suggests that family policies do not emphasize inclusivity. The generosity of parental leave has also affected young parents’ labor market situation, as the prospect that they may take long leaves might influence employers’ recruitment decisions.
While the parental benefit system prioritizes stay-at-home parents, access to preschool childcare is generally good and reasonably affordable. However, childcare has a tuition fee of up to 20% of the minimum salary, with the exact rate decided by municipalities. While municipalities are obliged to provide a childcare place starting at 18 months, not all can fully meet this obligation. Consequently, the share of preschoolers above age 3 is very high at 95%, but for those below age 3, it is only 21%.
Citations:
OECD Stats. 2019. “The OECD Social Expenditure Database.”
Pall, K. 2023. “Estonia Country Note.” In Blum, S., Dobrotić, I., Kaufman, G., Koslowski, A., and Moss, P., eds., International Review of Leave Policies and Research 2023. https://www.leavenetwork.org/annual-review-reports/
Statistics Estonia. 2023. “Absolute Poverty.” https://www.stat.ee/en/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/heaolu/sotsiaalne-torjutus-ja-vaesus/absolute-poverty
Graph View
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
Estonia has had a three-pillar pension system since 2002. In 2019, the poor performance of pension funds, high administrative costs and limited choices for citizens triggered a reform of the mandatory second pillar. Despite legal amendments that relaxed investment restrictions and reduced administrative costs, the 2019 pension reform introduced an opt-out option from the statutory pillar II funded pension scheme. By the end of 2021, 24% of all second-pillar assets owned by 23% of insured people under 60 were withdrawn (EV 2022). Nearly half (48%) of those who opted out were aged 35 – 49, posing a significant sustainability risk (OECD 2023). Making the second pillar voluntary puts additional pressure on the first, pay-as-you-go pillar, reducing the future adequacy of pensions and increasing the long-term risk of poverty.
As of 2023, despite annual indexation and an increase in the minimum pension, the average public old-age pension in Estonia remains among the lowest relative to work income, and poverty among the elderly is the highest in the EU. This is primarily because the average old-age pension falls below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold. Currently, approximately one in 10 pensioners receive a pension lower than the requirement of the social charter, and this proportion is increasing. Furthermore, Estonia does not meet the average pension goal, as the combined pillar I and II pension of the median wage earner is less than 60% of the median wage.
The risk of inadequate old-age pensions for people in nonstandard employment is mitigated by the points system of pay-as-you-go calculations, which does not discriminate between different contract types. Still, this system cannot address infrequent contributions to social insurance or the career precariousness associated with nonstandard employment. Therefore, the inadequacy and inequality of pensions are expected to increase. This will lead to a growing need for future policy changes to raise public awareness of the pension system, improve the contribution of voluntary tiers and enhance the sustainability of pension system funding.
Citations:
EV Sotsiaalministeerium (Ministry of Social Affairs). 2022. Eesti pensionisüsteemi jätkusuutlikkuse analüüs 2022. (The sustainability Analysis of Estonian Pension System)
OECD. 2023. Pensions at a Glance. Country Profiles – Estonia.
As of 2023, despite annual indexation and an increase in the minimum pension, the average public old-age pension in Estonia remains among the lowest relative to work income, and poverty among the elderly is the highest in the EU. This is primarily because the average old-age pension falls below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold. Currently, approximately one in 10 pensioners receive a pension lower than the requirement of the social charter, and this proportion is increasing. Furthermore, Estonia does not meet the average pension goal, as the combined pillar I and II pension of the median wage earner is less than 60% of the median wage.
The risk of inadequate old-age pensions for people in nonstandard employment is mitigated by the points system of pay-as-you-go calculations, which does not discriminate between different contract types. Still, this system cannot address infrequent contributions to social insurance or the career precariousness associated with nonstandard employment. Therefore, the inadequacy and inequality of pensions are expected to increase. This will lead to a growing need for future policy changes to raise public awareness of the pension system, improve the contribution of voluntary tiers and enhance the sustainability of pension system funding.
Citations:
EV Sotsiaalministeerium (Ministry of Social Affairs). 2022. Eesti pensionisüsteemi jätkusuutlikkuse analüüs 2022. (The sustainability Analysis of Estonian Pension System)
OECD. 2023. Pensions at a Glance. Country Profiles – Estonia.
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
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9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
The low share of public investment in old-age pensions and the low levels of pensions relative to work incomes have resulted in one of the highest shares of employment among older people. Recent policy initiatives have sought to incentivize the reconciliation of working and retirement or deferring retirement. During the deferral period, the worker continues to contribute and earn extra entitlement. In the case of combining work and pension, contributions are paid, and the pension is recalculated annually.
However, funding scarcities, the country’s deteriorating dependency ratio, the diminished share of private contributions related to policy changes in 2021, and the relatively high share of special pensions and early retirements continue to challenge the sustainability of the Estonian pension system. These issues create a need for governments to continue making changes to cope with new social risks posed by broader demographic and labor market changes.
However, funding scarcities, the country’s deteriorating dependency ratio, the diminished share of private contributions related to policy changes in 2021, and the relatively high share of special pensions and early retirements continue to challenge the sustainability of the Estonian pension system. These issues create a need for governments to continue making changes to cope with new social risks posed by broader demographic and labor market changes.
Graph View
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
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9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Since the Soviet period, Estonia has had a large non-native population, with Russian speakers composing almost a third of the population. The national immigration policy has been regularly updated and monitored, with the government allocating substantial national and EU funds to various integration programs. In 2021, the Cohesive Estonia Strategy 2021 – 2030 was adopted (RE 2022), aiming to find common ground between previously separate programs and strategies. It also presents the objectives agreed upon for the next decade and the main policies to achieve them.
According to the Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX), from 2014 to 2019, Estonia’s integration policies improved more than the MIPEX average. Estonia scored relatively high in many areas of integration, including labor market mobility and permanent residence, and recently made significant progress in family reunion (Solano, Huddleston 2020). The country also received a relatively high score in education, as its Soviet-inherited bilingual school system has enabled it to respond to diverse needs. However, this mainly indicates access to education, not performance. A notable ethnic educational gap exists in Estonia between Estonian-language and Russian-language schools (OECD 2023). While this gap has slightly diminished, it is due to the decline in Estonian-language school performance rather than improvements in Russian-language schools.
Furthermore, the existence of a parallel school system reinforces social and political fragmentation. For example, the share of people claiming obstacles related to language skills in getting a job is above the EU average (Eurostat). As a result, an increasing number of ethnic minority children study in language immersion groups and classes in preschools and Estonian-language elementary schools. Additionally, the long-postponed unified Estonian-language school reform was slated to be enacted in 2023, with a concrete long-term plan to integrate the existing parallel school system into one comprehensive system.
The biggest problems immigrants face are in the fields of political participation, access to nationality, and health (MIPEX). In national elections, only Estonian citizens can vote and register as candidates. Permanent residents without Estonian or other EU citizenship can vote in municipal elections but cannot stand as candidates. In recent years, an increasing number of Russian speakers who hold Estonian citizenship have been employed in the civil service, have entered the political elite and have stood as candidates in elections. However, the electoral turnout rate among Russian speakers remains lower than the national average. Several public and private initiatives have sought to facilitate civil society activism among ethnic minorities, yielding some visible progress.
Beyond policies from the Soviet period on integrating immigrants, Estonia has implemented programs to integrate refugees and new immigrants. Immigrants who have newly arrived can participate in an introductory welcoming program that helps them settle and acquire knowledge, skills and proficiency in the Estonian language.
Additionally, the Ministry of the Interior supports and empowers public, private and third-sector organizations working with newly arrived immigrants by building support networks and developing public services. In 2022 and 2023 the largest influx has been among Ukrainian refugees, and Estonia has accepted the highest per capita share of refugees from Ukraine. According to a recent study (RITA 2023), Ukrainian refugees from the war have integrated into the labor market and education system in Estonia more successfully than in other countries, although there is still room for improvement in matching the qualifications of those arriving from Ukraine with appropriate jobs.
The body responsible for equal treatment is the Department of Equality Policy, led by the gender equality and equal treatment commissioner (GEETC). The department is mandated to promote gender equality and address other equality matters.
Citations:
Republic of Estonia. 2022. Cohesive Estonia. Ministry of Culture. https://www.kul.ee/siduseesti2030
RITA 1. 2023. Ukraina sõjapõgenikud Eestis. Lõpparuanne. Parxis, TÜ, Centar. https://centar.ee/tehtud-tood/rita-c-19-jatkuprojekt-ukraina-sojapogenikud-eestis
Solano, G., and T. Huddleston. 2020. “Migrant Integration Policy Index 2020.” https://www.mipex.eu/estonia
According to the Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX), from 2014 to 2019, Estonia’s integration policies improved more than the MIPEX average. Estonia scored relatively high in many areas of integration, including labor market mobility and permanent residence, and recently made significant progress in family reunion (Solano, Huddleston 2020). The country also received a relatively high score in education, as its Soviet-inherited bilingual school system has enabled it to respond to diverse needs. However, this mainly indicates access to education, not performance. A notable ethnic educational gap exists in Estonia between Estonian-language and Russian-language schools (OECD 2023). While this gap has slightly diminished, it is due to the decline in Estonian-language school performance rather than improvements in Russian-language schools.
Furthermore, the existence of a parallel school system reinforces social and political fragmentation. For example, the share of people claiming obstacles related to language skills in getting a job is above the EU average (Eurostat). As a result, an increasing number of ethnic minority children study in language immersion groups and classes in preschools and Estonian-language elementary schools. Additionally, the long-postponed unified Estonian-language school reform was slated to be enacted in 2023, with a concrete long-term plan to integrate the existing parallel school system into one comprehensive system.
The biggest problems immigrants face are in the fields of political participation, access to nationality, and health (MIPEX). In national elections, only Estonian citizens can vote and register as candidates. Permanent residents without Estonian or other EU citizenship can vote in municipal elections but cannot stand as candidates. In recent years, an increasing number of Russian speakers who hold Estonian citizenship have been employed in the civil service, have entered the political elite and have stood as candidates in elections. However, the electoral turnout rate among Russian speakers remains lower than the national average. Several public and private initiatives have sought to facilitate civil society activism among ethnic minorities, yielding some visible progress.
Beyond policies from the Soviet period on integrating immigrants, Estonia has implemented programs to integrate refugees and new immigrants. Immigrants who have newly arrived can participate in an introductory welcoming program that helps them settle and acquire knowledge, skills and proficiency in the Estonian language.
Additionally, the Ministry of the Interior supports and empowers public, private and third-sector organizations working with newly arrived immigrants by building support networks and developing public services. In 2022 and 2023 the largest influx has been among Ukrainian refugees, and Estonia has accepted the highest per capita share of refugees from Ukraine. According to a recent study (RITA 2023), Ukrainian refugees from the war have integrated into the labor market and education system in Estonia more successfully than in other countries, although there is still room for improvement in matching the qualifications of those arriving from Ukraine with appropriate jobs.
The body responsible for equal treatment is the Department of Equality Policy, led by the gender equality and equal treatment commissioner (GEETC). The department is mandated to promote gender equality and address other equality matters.
Citations:
Republic of Estonia. 2022. Cohesive Estonia. Ministry of Culture. https://www.kul.ee/siduseesti2030
RITA 1. 2023. Ukraina sõjapõgenikud Eestis. Lõpparuanne. Parxis, TÜ, Centar. https://centar.ee/tehtud-tood/rita-c-19-jatkuprojekt-ukraina-sojapogenikud-eestis
Solano, G., and T. Huddleston. 2020. “Migrant Integration Policy Index 2020.” https://www.mipex.eu/estonia
Graph View
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
Estonia actively participates in international humanitarian interventions through the European Union and the United Nations. Estonia’s development cooperation policy is governed by the Estonian Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid Program 2020 – 2023, which adopts the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as its foundation. The strategy outlines Estonia’s development objectives, main fields of activity and key partner countries. The main partners are Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia. In Africa, the focus is primarily on East Africa and Kenya (ESTDEV).
Given Estonia’s very small size, its development cooperation has limited reach, and the bulk of efforts is targeted toward Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia. However, the effort in these regions is considerable.
Estonia is active across various fields, though special efforts have focused on transferring knowledge in the fields of education, healthcare and e-government. The country is a world leader in disseminating domestic expertise in implementing ICT in public administration and education. Estonia’s official development assistance (ODA) index score increased remarkably in 2023 compared to 2021, making Estonia one of the top 10 countries committed to development cooperation.
The amount of official development aid provided by Estonia rose to €50.8 million in 2021, an 18% increase from 2020. Of this amount, €47.6 million was allocated for development cooperation, and €3.25 million for humanitarian aid. This 2021 figure represented 0.17% of the country’s gross national income (GNI). The country has made an international commitment to increase this amount to 0.33% by 2030.
To address the growing challenges of increased demand, the Estonian government has separated the roles of creating and carrying out development cooperation and humanitarian aid. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for developing policies, state strategies and action plans, while the Estonian Center for International Development (ESTDEV) manages and implements international development cooperation and humanitarian assistance projects.
Estonia bases its aid allocation on specified needs, often determined through analyses by the United Nations, the European Commission or the Red Cross organizations, but may also respond to direct requests for help from countries. In 2021, the country provided €3.25 million in humanitarian aid, with the lion’s share allocated to support for Ukraine (ESTDEV).
In parallel to government efforts, NGOs and private enterprises work in the field of international development. Awareness-raising campaigns in the fair-trade movement offer one example of NGO activity.
Citations:
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2023. “ESTDEV Overview of Estonian Development Cooperation.”
https://estdev.ee/estonian-development-cooperation/?lang=en
Given Estonia’s very small size, its development cooperation has limited reach, and the bulk of efforts is targeted toward Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia. However, the effort in these regions is considerable.
Estonia is active across various fields, though special efforts have focused on transferring knowledge in the fields of education, healthcare and e-government. The country is a world leader in disseminating domestic expertise in implementing ICT in public administration and education. Estonia’s official development assistance (ODA) index score increased remarkably in 2023 compared to 2021, making Estonia one of the top 10 countries committed to development cooperation.
The amount of official development aid provided by Estonia rose to €50.8 million in 2021, an 18% increase from 2020. Of this amount, €47.6 million was allocated for development cooperation, and €3.25 million for humanitarian aid. This 2021 figure represented 0.17% of the country’s gross national income (GNI). The country has made an international commitment to increase this amount to 0.33% by 2030.
To address the growing challenges of increased demand, the Estonian government has separated the roles of creating and carrying out development cooperation and humanitarian aid. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for developing policies, state strategies and action plans, while the Estonian Center for International Development (ESTDEV) manages and implements international development cooperation and humanitarian assistance projects.
Estonia bases its aid allocation on specified needs, often determined through analyses by the United Nations, the European Commission or the Red Cross organizations, but may also respond to direct requests for help from countries. In 2021, the country provided €3.25 million in humanitarian aid, with the lion’s share allocated to support for Ukraine (ESTDEV).
In parallel to government efforts, NGOs and private enterprises work in the field of international development. Awareness-raising campaigns in the fair-trade movement offer one example of NGO activity.
Citations:
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2023. “ESTDEV Overview of Estonian Development Cooperation.”
https://estdev.ee/estonian-development-cooperation/?lang=en