Vertical Accountability
#2Key Findings
Finland falls into the top group internationally (rank 2) with regard to vertical accountability.
Finland’s electoral process is free and fair. The registration process for candidates and political parties is transparent. Party and candidate finances must be accurately recorded and disclosed. The State Accounting Office monitors these activities. All adult citizens have the right to vote.
The country has an impartial electoral management body that is adequately staffed and sufficiently funded to administer elections fairly. Voting processes, including absentee and early voting, are straightforward and nondiscriminatory, with no reported incidents of harassment or irregularities. Electronic voting was tested in 2008, but has not been implemented since.
Coalition governments often involve parties from both the left and right. Political polarization is relatively low. Public access to government information is largely unrestricted with the exception of certain sensitive documents, such as those related to foreign affairs, criminal investigations or national security.
Finland’s electoral process is free and fair. The registration process for candidates and political parties is transparent. Party and candidate finances must be accurately recorded and disclosed. The State Accounting Office monitors these activities. All adult citizens have the right to vote.
The country has an impartial electoral management body that is adequately staffed and sufficiently funded to administer elections fairly. Voting processes, including absentee and early voting, are straightforward and nondiscriminatory, with no reported incidents of harassment or irregularities. Electronic voting was tested in 2008, but has not been implemented since.
Coalition governments often involve parties from both the left and right. Political polarization is relatively low. Public access to government information is largely unrestricted with the exception of certain sensitive documents, such as those related to foreign affairs, criminal investigations or national security.
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To what extent is political competition among candidates and political parties free and fair?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to effective political competition.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles to effective political competition.
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3
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to effective political competition.
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1
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles to effective political competition.
The electoral process in Finland is free and fair, and the country’s constitution grants Finnish citizens the right to participate in national elections and referendums. The registration procedures for candidates and political parties meet standards of transparency and fairness, including requirements such as financial deposits, age, party affiliation and petition signatures (party-only). There are no exclusions based on insolvency, undischarged bankruptcy or criminal record/convictions.
No eligible candidate is prevented from being elected. No candidate is disqualified from registration in a manner that fails to adhere to objectively verifiable legal criteria. If a candidate is denied the right to be elected, they have the right to appeal to a competent jurisdiction capable of reviewing such decisions and correcting errors promptly and effectively.
Parties and candidates must maintain accurate financial records, disclose the nature and value of received donations, and regularly publish their accounts. This process is also carried out de facto. The State Accounting Office manages these activities and monitors party funding. There are no mechanisms that provide significant advantages to specific candidates or parties. Political competition is not affected or distorted by deliberate manipulation through the news media.
Citations:
Orpo, Petteri. 2023. Government Program: A Strong and Committed Finland.
Publications of the Finnish Government. 2023. https://valtioneuvosto.fi/en/governments/government-programme#/
No eligible candidate is prevented from being elected. No candidate is disqualified from registration in a manner that fails to adhere to objectively verifiable legal criteria. If a candidate is denied the right to be elected, they have the right to appeal to a competent jurisdiction capable of reviewing such decisions and correcting errors promptly and effectively.
Parties and candidates must maintain accurate financial records, disclose the nature and value of received donations, and regularly publish their accounts. This process is also carried out de facto. The State Accounting Office manages these activities and monitors party funding. There are no mechanisms that provide significant advantages to specific candidates or parties. Political competition is not affected or distorted by deliberate manipulation through the news media.
Citations:
Orpo, Petteri. 2023. Government Program: A Strong and Committed Finland.
Publications of the Finnish Government. 2023. https://valtioneuvosto.fi/en/governments/government-programme#/
To what extent can all citizens, both in legal terms (de jure) and in practice (de facto), exercise their right to vote?
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9
9
There are no significant barriers, by law or in practice, that hinder citizens or specific groups in society from exercising their right to vote.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles to voting.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to voting.
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1
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles that substantially hinder voting.
Registered political parties have the right to nominate candidates, though all voters can influence the nomination process. Electoral associations of at least 100 enfranchised citizens also have the right of nomination. However, the role of these associations has been marginal.
Candidates for presidential elections can be nominated by any political party represented in parliament at the time of nomination. Candidates may also be nominated by associations of at least 20,000 enfranchised citizens.
Voting rights in municipal elections are granted to all citizens, including those without permanent residence in the country. Felony convictions do not affect voting rights.
There is no disenfranchisement resulting from a flawed voter registry. Individuals who have been denied the right to vote or to register as voters have the opportunity to appeal to a competent jurisdiction, which can review such decisions and rectify errors in a timely and effective manner.
There is an impartial and highly capable electoral management body equipped with sufficient, trained staff and the financial resources to effectively administer elections.
The elections are conducted according to the established schedule. However, during the pandemic, municipal elections in 2021 were postponed for a few months.
The election process in Finland is carried out in an impartial and nondiscriminatory manner. There is an adequate number of polling stations relative to population density. Polling stations are accessible with regard to their location and the availability of free public transport, especially for handicapped citizens. There is also no impartiality or discrimination regarding the voting time frame and date, the comprehensive ballot design, the implementation of the secret ballot, or the provision of voter assistance, such as water supply in waiting lines.
Absentee, email and early voting processes are conducted in a straightforward, impartial and nondiscriminatory manner. There have been no incidents of harassment, violence or intimidation against voters. No irregularities have been observed in the voter registry.
Petteri Orpo’s government is committed to enhancing fairness and representation in the electoral system through democratic principles and legislative measures governing elections and political parties. According to the government program (Orpo 2023), the administration plans to address the issue of disproportionality in the electoral system by initiating a parliamentary process to create a new model for electoral regions, specifically targeting electoral districts with a high hidden vote threshold. The primary focus will be on the Lapland electoral district, which will be combined with the North Ostrobothnia electoral district to form a unified electoral region for the purposes of calculating results.
The approach to distributing seats among parties will be based on the number of votes received by each candidate and the proportion of members of parliament elected from the electoral districts relative to the population. While both electoral districts will maintain their independence and existing boundaries, their regional identity will also be considered. In the future, a similar methodology may be applied to other electoral districts with fewer than eight or seven members of parliament to be elected in the future. The decision on the electoral region model is anticipated to be finalized in 2024, with the goal of implementing the new model in the parliamentary elections of 2031 at the latest.
Citations:
Orpo, Petteri. 2023. Government Program: A Strong and Committed Finland.
Publications of the Finnish Government. 2023. https://valtioneuvosto.fi/en/governments/government-programme#/
Candidates for presidential elections can be nominated by any political party represented in parliament at the time of nomination. Candidates may also be nominated by associations of at least 20,000 enfranchised citizens.
Voting rights in municipal elections are granted to all citizens, including those without permanent residence in the country. Felony convictions do not affect voting rights.
There is no disenfranchisement resulting from a flawed voter registry. Individuals who have been denied the right to vote or to register as voters have the opportunity to appeal to a competent jurisdiction, which can review such decisions and rectify errors in a timely and effective manner.
There is an impartial and highly capable electoral management body equipped with sufficient, trained staff and the financial resources to effectively administer elections.
The elections are conducted according to the established schedule. However, during the pandemic, municipal elections in 2021 were postponed for a few months.
The election process in Finland is carried out in an impartial and nondiscriminatory manner. There is an adequate number of polling stations relative to population density. Polling stations are accessible with regard to their location and the availability of free public transport, especially for handicapped citizens. There is also no impartiality or discrimination regarding the voting time frame and date, the comprehensive ballot design, the implementation of the secret ballot, or the provision of voter assistance, such as water supply in waiting lines.
Absentee, email and early voting processes are conducted in a straightforward, impartial and nondiscriminatory manner. There have been no incidents of harassment, violence or intimidation against voters. No irregularities have been observed in the voter registry.
Petteri Orpo’s government is committed to enhancing fairness and representation in the electoral system through democratic principles and legislative measures governing elections and political parties. According to the government program (Orpo 2023), the administration plans to address the issue of disproportionality in the electoral system by initiating a parliamentary process to create a new model for electoral regions, specifically targeting electoral districts with a high hidden vote threshold. The primary focus will be on the Lapland electoral district, which will be combined with the North Ostrobothnia electoral district to form a unified electoral region for the purposes of calculating results.
The approach to distributing seats among parties will be based on the number of votes received by each candidate and the proportion of members of parliament elected from the electoral districts relative to the population. While both electoral districts will maintain their independence and existing boundaries, their regional identity will also be considered. In the future, a similar methodology may be applied to other electoral districts with fewer than eight or seven members of parliament to be elected in the future. The decision on the electoral region model is anticipated to be finalized in 2024, with the goal of implementing the new model in the parliamentary elections of 2031 at the latest.
Citations:
Orpo, Petteri. 2023. Government Program: A Strong and Committed Finland.
Publications of the Finnish Government. 2023. https://valtioneuvosto.fi/en/governments/government-programme#/
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To what extent do parties articulate and aggregate all societal interests?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to achieving effective societal integration.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose no significant barriers to achieving effective societal integration.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose some significant barriers to achieving effective societal integration.
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1
Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose various significant barriers to achieving effective societal integration.
Electoral provisions stipulate universal suffrage for all adult Finnish citizens, including prisoners and mentally disabled people, with a secret-ballot voting method. The minimum voting age is 18, and voting is noncompulsory. Expatriated Finnish citizens are entitled to vote, while non-Finnish nationals residing in Finland are excluded from national elections. However, non-Finnish permanent residents may vote in municipal elections. The population registration center maintains a register of people eligible to vote and sends a notification to those included in the register. Citizens do not need to register separately to vote. A system of advance voting has been in place for several decades, and the proportion of ballots cast in advance has risen significantly.
It is fair to say that the legal aspects of the political system, such as electoral system features, do not hinder the representation of relevant societal interests through political parties.
Electronic voting was tested in three municipalities during the 2008 municipal elections but has not been adopted in subsequent elections. In its final report from 2017, a working group on the issue appointed by the Ministry of Justice stated that while technically feasible, an online voting system is not yet ready to be implemented, as the technology has not reached a sufficiently high level to meet all relevant requirements.
The major political parties have local branches to represent distinct local interests. However, local party branches have lost members, and the parties’ local representation has become weaker. It is still fair to say that the existing parties in the legislature fairly well represent significant societal interests in a programmatic manner, as opposed to relying on clientelism.
Party manifestos differ from one another and are publicly accessible.
Citations:
Dag Anckar and Carsten Anckar. “Finland.” In Dieter Nohlen and Philip Stöver, eds. Elections in Europe.
Data Handbook. 2010. Nomos.
https://vaalit.fi/en/electronic-voting1
It is fair to say that the legal aspects of the political system, such as electoral system features, do not hinder the representation of relevant societal interests through political parties.
Electronic voting was tested in three municipalities during the 2008 municipal elections but has not been adopted in subsequent elections. In its final report from 2017, a working group on the issue appointed by the Ministry of Justice stated that while technically feasible, an online voting system is not yet ready to be implemented, as the technology has not reached a sufficiently high level to meet all relevant requirements.
The major political parties have local branches to represent distinct local interests. However, local party branches have lost members, and the parties’ local representation has become weaker. It is still fair to say that the existing parties in the legislature fairly well represent significant societal interests in a programmatic manner, as opposed to relying on clientelism.
Party manifestos differ from one another and are publicly accessible.
Citations:
Dag Anckar and Carsten Anckar. “Finland.” In Dieter Nohlen and Philip Stöver, eds. Elections in Europe.
Data Handbook. 2010. Nomos.
https://vaalit.fi/en/electronic-voting1
To what extent do political parties retain their ability to enable cross-party cooperation in policymaking and implementation?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose no significant barriers to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose some significant barriers to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
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1
Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose various significant barriers to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
Finland is known for coalition governments. This means all parties aiming to enter the cabinet need to maintain their ability to enable cross-party cooperation in policymaking and implementation.
In comparative terms, the level of party polarization in Finland is low. Generally, Finnish governments are coalition governments, often comprising parties from both the left and right. The Sanna Marin government and the current Petteri Orpo government fit well into this tradition. The most extreme example of a broad coalition in recent decades occurred in 2011 when Jyrki Katainen formed a cabinet consisting of six parties, including the far-left Left Alliance, the Green Party and Katainen’s conservative National Coalition Party.
The Sipilä government (2015 – 2019), however, was an exception to this rule, as it was composed of only three center-right parties.
As with many other European countries, Finland has experienced polarization between political elites and nationalistic populist elements.
As of this writing, the ruling cabinet in Finland consists of a coalition of four major parties, which together command a majority in parliament. There are essentially four parties in the opposition.
Party polarization did not undermine the ability to engage in cross-party cooperation for crisis management during the pandemic in Finland or during the application for NATO membership.
There is widespread acceptance of liberal democratic values and institutions among major political parties. However, it is somewhat doubtful whether all parties – especially the populist True Finns party – are truly committed to advancing them. The most serious crisis erupted in the summer of 2023 when it was revealed that the True Finns party chair had expressed racist comments in a blog written in 2008. So far, the Orpo government has been able to work together within the coalition to control and neutralize the influence of anti-democratic actors.
Citations:
https://www.politico.eu/article/finish-finance-minister-riikka-purra-racism-xenophobia-racist-comments-hallaaho-scripta-immigration/
In comparative terms, the level of party polarization in Finland is low. Generally, Finnish governments are coalition governments, often comprising parties from both the left and right. The Sanna Marin government and the current Petteri Orpo government fit well into this tradition. The most extreme example of a broad coalition in recent decades occurred in 2011 when Jyrki Katainen formed a cabinet consisting of six parties, including the far-left Left Alliance, the Green Party and Katainen’s conservative National Coalition Party.
The Sipilä government (2015 – 2019), however, was an exception to this rule, as it was composed of only three center-right parties.
As with many other European countries, Finland has experienced polarization between political elites and nationalistic populist elements.
As of this writing, the ruling cabinet in Finland consists of a coalition of four major parties, which together command a majority in parliament. There are essentially four parties in the opposition.
Party polarization did not undermine the ability to engage in cross-party cooperation for crisis management during the pandemic in Finland or during the application for NATO membership.
There is widespread acceptance of liberal democratic values and institutions among major political parties. However, it is somewhat doubtful whether all parties – especially the populist True Finns party – are truly committed to advancing them. The most serious crisis erupted in the summer of 2023 when it was revealed that the True Finns party chair had expressed racist comments in a blog written in 2008. So far, the Orpo government has been able to work together within the coalition to control and neutralize the influence of anti-democratic actors.
Citations:
https://www.politico.eu/article/finish-finance-minister-riikka-purra-racism-xenophobia-racist-comments-hallaaho-scripta-immigration/
Graph View
To what extent can citizens and residents access official information?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, for citizens seeking to access official information.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles for citizens seeking to access official information.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles for citizens seeking to access official information.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose many/various significant obstacles for citizens seeking to access official information.
Public access to government information is, in principle, unrestricted. According to the Finnish Constitution, every Finnish citizen has the right to access public documents and recordings. This right includes access to documents and recordings held by government authorities, unless their publication has been restricted by a government act for a compelling reason. Section 12 of the constitution states: “Everyone has the freedom of expression. Freedom of expression entails the right to express, disseminate and receive information, opinions and other communications without prior prevention by anyone.”
However, special categories are secret and exempt from release, including documents that relate to foreign affairs, criminal investigations, the police, security services and military intelligence. Such documents are usually kept secret for 25 years, unless otherwise stated by law.
One such document, the so-called Tiitinen’s List, continues to be highly controversial. The list was given to Finland by West Germany in 1990, and it is assumed to contain the names of 18 people who allegedly collaborated with the East German intelligence and security service. Despite years of public debate and calls from top politicians, Finnish authorities have refused to release the document.
Finland was among the first countries to sign the Council of Europe Convention on Access to Official Documents in 2009. The 1999 Act on the Openness of Government Activities stipulates that individuals requesting information are not required to provide reasons for their requests and that responses must be provided within 14 days. Appeals of any denial can be taken to a higher authority and then to the Administrative Court. The chancellor of justice and the parliamentary ombudsman can also review the appeal.
Journalists have persistently exposed public authorities’ attempts to hide contentious information.
Citations:
The Constitution of Finland. 1999. https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf
However, special categories are secret and exempt from release, including documents that relate to foreign affairs, criminal investigations, the police, security services and military intelligence. Such documents are usually kept secret for 25 years, unless otherwise stated by law.
One such document, the so-called Tiitinen’s List, continues to be highly controversial. The list was given to Finland by West Germany in 1990, and it is assumed to contain the names of 18 people who allegedly collaborated with the East German intelligence and security service. Despite years of public debate and calls from top politicians, Finnish authorities have refused to release the document.
Finland was among the first countries to sign the Council of Europe Convention on Access to Official Documents in 2009. The 1999 Act on the Openness of Government Activities stipulates that individuals requesting information are not required to provide reasons for their requests and that responses must be provided within 14 days. Appeals of any denial can be taken to a higher authority and then to the Administrative Court. The chancellor of justice and the parliamentary ombudsman can also review the appeal.
Journalists have persistently exposed public authorities’ attempts to hide contentious information.
Citations:
The Constitution of Finland. 1999. https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf