Social Sustainability
#5Key Findings
Germany performs well in international comparison (rank 5) with respect to social sustainability.
Municipalities and states share responsibility for the public school system, with national educational standards in place since 2004. The country faces a shortage of teachers, especially in STEM fields. Access to higher education is strongly influenced by family income and education levels.
Health care insurance is mandatory. Per capita health care spending is the EU’s highest. Hospitals and rural doctor’s practices face staffing shortages. A comprehensive gender equality strategy is in place, including some quota polices. Corporate boards must include women. However, a gender pay gap persists.
Children have a legal claim to childcare beginning at age 1, but childcare is not free. All regular employees participate in the statutory pension system, but self-employed workers do not. Restrictions on immigration of skilled workers are low. Migrants’ unemployment rates are lower than the OECD average. Employment rates among migrants are rising.
Municipalities and states share responsibility for the public school system, with national educational standards in place since 2004. The country faces a shortage of teachers, especially in STEM fields. Access to higher education is strongly influenced by family income and education levels.
Health care insurance is mandatory. Per capita health care spending is the EU’s highest. Hospitals and rural doctor’s practices face staffing shortages. A comprehensive gender equality strategy is in place, including some quota polices. Corporate boards must include women. However, a gender pay gap persists.
Children have a legal claim to childcare beginning at age 1, but childcare is not free. All regular employees participate in the statutory pension system, but self-employed workers do not. Restrictions on immigration of skilled workers are low. Migrants’ unemployment rates are lower than the OECD average. Employment rates among migrants are rising.
Graph View
Graph View
To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
In Germany, education is widely acknowledged as a public good. Article 7, Paragraph 1 of the Basic Law states that the government holds primary responsibility for education, which is predominantly funded by taxpayers. The inherent public interest in education places an obligation on the state to ensure the effectiveness of the educational system (Hepp, 2013). More specifically, education in Germany is regulated at the state level. Consequently, individual states have their own school acts (Schulgesetze) and thus different policies and regulations.
As described, the financial resources for education are predominantly provided by the government. For public school systems, municipalities and states share responsibilities for finances. Generally, states finance the teaching personnel while municipalities usually provide resources for material costs. Because the finances are not regulated at the federal level, differences across municipalities and states can be observed regarding schools’ financial resources (Schrooten, 2021). For instance, in 2021, spending per student in Berlin was around €13,300, while it was €8,200 in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. However, spending cannot be compared directly, as schools in different states differ in factors such as structure and educational offerings (Destatis, 2023a).
Since the Basic Law outlines the government’s responsibility for providing education, resources must be available even in times of economic crisis or government transition. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the system struggled with schools’ digital backwardness regarding equipment and teacher training. Nevertheless, federal and state governments reacted quickly by providing additional crisis programs and digital investment budgets. Generally, the budget ranges from approximately 6 to 7% of GDP, with 7% for 2021 and 7.1% for 2020 (Destatis, 2023b).
Concerning human resources, in 2021, Germany had a ratio of pupils and students to teachers and academic staff of 14.8 for primary schools and 12.1 for upper-secondary schools. Both ratios are above the EU average (Eurostat, 2023).
To provide highly skilled educators, teachers undergo a multi-stage training process that includes a university program and preparatory training, known as the Referendariat. The specifics of university education for aspiring teachers vary among the states. In Bavaria, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, and Saxony, students graduate with a state examination (Staatsexamen), whereas in other states, students earn a bachelor’s and master’s degree.
Although the framework is designed to facilitate the recruitment of highly skilled educators, Germany faces a considerable teacher shortage, particularly in STEM subjects. An improvement in the situation is unlikely, especially since the number of students enrolling in teaching programs has declined. Even with a 100% graduation rate, it is insufficient to address the teacher shortage. Additionally, there is criticism that the current education system does not adequately prepare educators for digitalization or the challenges arising from increased heterogeneity in schools (Stiferverband, 2023).
As of 2004, Germany has national educational standards implemented by the federal states and introduced into core curricula, forming the basis for consistent skill development for all students from primary school to the end of the upper-secondary level. Each state has its own core curriculum, developed by the individual state’s departments of education and cultural affairs (e.g., Hessisches Kultusministerium, n.d.). However, it is unclear to what extent these curricula are adapted to labor market demands.
The provision of training programs and education with relevant hands-on skills occurs through vocational training under the dual system. This system is referred to as “dual” since training takes place at two learning locations: in the company and at vocational school (Kultusministerkonferenz, n.d.). Besides the option of vocational training under the dual system, several companies also offer dual study programs. Vocational training and these study programs, due to the dual involvement of both the public and private sectors, are highly responsive to the changing skill needs of the labor market.
With regard to lifelong learning, adults in Germany participated in non-formal learning for an average of 4.24 hours per week before the COVID-19 pandemic and 3.23 hours per week during the pandemic lockdowns. This is slightly less than the OECD average of 4.54 hours (pre-COVID) and 3.42 hours (during lockdowns). Additionally, 45% of adults in Germany choose not to participate in available education and training opportunities, compared to the OECD average of 50%.
According to the OECD Skills Outlook for 2021, fundamental skills – specifically reading competence in this study – increased by 25 points from age 15 to 27, compared to an OECD average increase of 13 points (OECD, 2021).
Sustainable development is included in most German school curricula. However, current surveys indicate that the sustainability dimension is not yet systematically integrated into school teaching and remains a secondary concern (Deutsches Schulportal, 2024).
Citations:
Destatis. 2023. “Ausgaben für öffentliche Schulen 2021 bei 9 200 Euro je Schülerin und Schüler.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/03/PD23_082_217.html
Destatis. 2023. “Budget für Bildung, Forschung und Wissenschaft nach Bereichen.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bildung-Forschung-Kultur/Bildungsfinanzen-Ausbildungsfoerderung/Tabellen/budget.html
Deutsches Schulportal. 2024. “Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE) an Schulen – Umsetzung oft halbherzig.” https://deutsches-schulportal.de/unterricht/bildung-fuer-nachhaltige-entwicklung-bne-an-schulen-wie-gelingt-das/
Eurostat. 2023. “Ratio of pupils and students to teachers and academic staff by education level and programme orientation.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/educ_uoe_perp04__custom_8840090/default/table?lang=en
Hepp, G. 2013. “Wie der Staat das Bildungswesen prägt.” https://www.bpb.de/themen/bildung/dossier-bildung/145238/wie-der-staat-das-bildungswesen-praegt/
Hessisches Kultusministerium. n.d. “Curriculare Vorgaben, Kerncurricula.” https://kultusministerium.hessen.de/unterricht/kerncurricula-und-lehrplaene/kerncurricula
Kultusministerkonferenz. n.d. “Berufliche Ausbildung im Dualen System – ein international beachtetes Modell.” https://www.kmk.org/themen/berufliche-schulen/duale-berufsausbildung.html
OECD. 2021. OECD Skills Outlook 2021. https://www.oecd.org/germany/Skills-Outlook-Germany-DE.pdf
Schrooten, M. 2021. “Bildungsfinanzierung – Fokus Schule.” https://www.gew.de/index.php?eID=dumpFile&t=f&f=106614&token=9a86a96ee9ecf90cc43c30a1e6a328e20ca5d813&sdownload=&n=2021-05-Bildungsfinanzierung-Fokus-Schule.pdf
Stifterverband. 2023. “Empfehlungen an Bund und Länder für die Lehrkräftebildung.” https://www.stifterverband.org/sites/default/files/lehrkraeftebildung_empfehlungen_an_bund_und_laender.pdf
As described, the financial resources for education are predominantly provided by the government. For public school systems, municipalities and states share responsibilities for finances. Generally, states finance the teaching personnel while municipalities usually provide resources for material costs. Because the finances are not regulated at the federal level, differences across municipalities and states can be observed regarding schools’ financial resources (Schrooten, 2021). For instance, in 2021, spending per student in Berlin was around €13,300, while it was €8,200 in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. However, spending cannot be compared directly, as schools in different states differ in factors such as structure and educational offerings (Destatis, 2023a).
Since the Basic Law outlines the government’s responsibility for providing education, resources must be available even in times of economic crisis or government transition. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the system struggled with schools’ digital backwardness regarding equipment and teacher training. Nevertheless, federal and state governments reacted quickly by providing additional crisis programs and digital investment budgets. Generally, the budget ranges from approximately 6 to 7% of GDP, with 7% for 2021 and 7.1% for 2020 (Destatis, 2023b).
Concerning human resources, in 2021, Germany had a ratio of pupils and students to teachers and academic staff of 14.8 for primary schools and 12.1 for upper-secondary schools. Both ratios are above the EU average (Eurostat, 2023).
To provide highly skilled educators, teachers undergo a multi-stage training process that includes a university program and preparatory training, known as the Referendariat. The specifics of university education for aspiring teachers vary among the states. In Bavaria, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, and Saxony, students graduate with a state examination (Staatsexamen), whereas in other states, students earn a bachelor’s and master’s degree.
Although the framework is designed to facilitate the recruitment of highly skilled educators, Germany faces a considerable teacher shortage, particularly in STEM subjects. An improvement in the situation is unlikely, especially since the number of students enrolling in teaching programs has declined. Even with a 100% graduation rate, it is insufficient to address the teacher shortage. Additionally, there is criticism that the current education system does not adequately prepare educators for digitalization or the challenges arising from increased heterogeneity in schools (Stiferverband, 2023).
As of 2004, Germany has national educational standards implemented by the federal states and introduced into core curricula, forming the basis for consistent skill development for all students from primary school to the end of the upper-secondary level. Each state has its own core curriculum, developed by the individual state’s departments of education and cultural affairs (e.g., Hessisches Kultusministerium, n.d.). However, it is unclear to what extent these curricula are adapted to labor market demands.
The provision of training programs and education with relevant hands-on skills occurs through vocational training under the dual system. This system is referred to as “dual” since training takes place at two learning locations: in the company and at vocational school (Kultusministerkonferenz, n.d.). Besides the option of vocational training under the dual system, several companies also offer dual study programs. Vocational training and these study programs, due to the dual involvement of both the public and private sectors, are highly responsive to the changing skill needs of the labor market.
With regard to lifelong learning, adults in Germany participated in non-formal learning for an average of 4.24 hours per week before the COVID-19 pandemic and 3.23 hours per week during the pandemic lockdowns. This is slightly less than the OECD average of 4.54 hours (pre-COVID) and 3.42 hours (during lockdowns). Additionally, 45% of adults in Germany choose not to participate in available education and training opportunities, compared to the OECD average of 50%.
According to the OECD Skills Outlook for 2021, fundamental skills – specifically reading competence in this study – increased by 25 points from age 15 to 27, compared to an OECD average increase of 13 points (OECD, 2021).
Sustainable development is included in most German school curricula. However, current surveys indicate that the sustainability dimension is not yet systematically integrated into school teaching and remains a secondary concern (Deutsches Schulportal, 2024).
Citations:
Destatis. 2023. “Ausgaben für öffentliche Schulen 2021 bei 9 200 Euro je Schülerin und Schüler.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/03/PD23_082_217.html
Destatis. 2023. “Budget für Bildung, Forschung und Wissenschaft nach Bereichen.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bildung-Forschung-Kultur/Bildungsfinanzen-Ausbildungsfoerderung/Tabellen/budget.html
Deutsches Schulportal. 2024. “Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung (BNE) an Schulen – Umsetzung oft halbherzig.” https://deutsches-schulportal.de/unterricht/bildung-fuer-nachhaltige-entwicklung-bne-an-schulen-wie-gelingt-das/
Eurostat. 2023. “Ratio of pupils and students to teachers and academic staff by education level and programme orientation.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/educ_uoe_perp04__custom_8840090/default/table?lang=en
Hepp, G. 2013. “Wie der Staat das Bildungswesen prägt.” https://www.bpb.de/themen/bildung/dossier-bildung/145238/wie-der-staat-das-bildungswesen-praegt/
Hessisches Kultusministerium. n.d. “Curriculare Vorgaben, Kerncurricula.” https://kultusministerium.hessen.de/unterricht/kerncurricula-und-lehrplaene/kerncurricula
Kultusministerkonferenz. n.d. “Berufliche Ausbildung im Dualen System – ein international beachtetes Modell.” https://www.kmk.org/themen/berufliche-schulen/duale-berufsausbildung.html
OECD. 2021. OECD Skills Outlook 2021. https://www.oecd.org/germany/Skills-Outlook-Germany-DE.pdf
Schrooten, M. 2021. “Bildungsfinanzierung – Fokus Schule.” https://www.gew.de/index.php?eID=dumpFile&t=f&f=106614&token=9a86a96ee9ecf90cc43c30a1e6a328e20ca5d813&sdownload=&n=2021-05-Bildungsfinanzierung-Fokus-Schule.pdf
Stifterverband. 2023. “Empfehlungen an Bund und Länder für die Lehrkräftebildung.” https://www.stifterverband.org/sites/default/files/lehrkraeftebildung_empfehlungen_an_bund_und_laender.pdf
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
School attendance in Germany is compulsory, with the number of mandatory years varying between nine and ten years depending on the state. Preprimary education, in contrast, is not mandatory. However, there are regulations ensuring that children have access to early childhood development and care (Edelstein, 2013).
On the federal level, Article 24 of Book 8 of the German Social Code – Child and Youth Services – regulates that children from ages one to three, as well as children from age three until the beginning of primary school, have a legal claim to early childhood development, care, and preprimary education. In March 2023, 90.1% of children between the ages of three and six, as well as 36.4% of children below the age of three, were enrolled in child daycares. The childcare quotas vary across individual states. In Bremen, for instance, only 86% of children over three years old attend child daycare, while the percentage is considerably higher in Thuringia at 94.4% (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2023).
While children from the age of one on have the right to a childcare slot, the demand exceeds the supply of available slots, meaning not every child has access to preprimary education. This particularly applies to children below three years of age, as the need and actual rate of childcare for this group differ by 13.6 percentage points (BMFSFJ, 2023). A study by the Federal Institute for Population Research showed that disadvantaged families are disproportionately affected by this issue. Children below three from families vulnerable to poverty and with parents with low levels of education are less likely to receive a place in childcare. Furthermore, only 24% of children who do not speak German at home are in childcare, compared to 38% of children from primarily German-speaking households. These findings are problematic, as these children could particularly benefit from preprimary education (Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung, 2023).
Nevertheless, the share of children enrolled in early childhood education systems in Germany is still above the OECD average and the EU25 average (OECD, 2023).
Regarding primary and secondary education, the previously mentioned compulsory schooling (Schulpflicht) is regulated by the school laws of the respective state, with the specific structure varying between states. Once schooling is no longer compulsory, secondary schools have mandatory attendance (Deutscher Bundestag, 2019). These regulations result in high enrollment rates in Germany, with a rate of 99% for the age group of six to fourteen and 88% for ages 15 to 19, which is above the OECD average (OECD, 2023).
During primary school, all children, regardless of socioeconomic background, attend the same educational institutions. Depending on the state, primary education extends from year one to year four or until year six. Secondary education is divided into different school forms with varying levels of education. Students receive a recommendation for secondary school based on grades and, occasionally, other criteria such as learning behavior (Schullaufbahnempfehlung). While it is not mandatory to follow this recommendation, some states require students to take an entrance exam or pass a probationary period if they choose a non-recommended type of school (Edelstein, 2013).
Equitable access to all levels of secondary and tertiary education, regardless of socioeconomic background, is an issue in Germany. For example, the probability of a child attending the highest level of secondary schooling (Gymnasium) is only 21.1% if no parent graduated with an Abitur and the family’s net monthly household income is below €2,600. This probability increases to 80.3% if both parents have an Abitur and earn a net monthly household income of over €5,500 (Wößmann et al., 2023). Similarly, only 27% of students from non-academic households go on to study at a university, while this share is 79% for students from academic households (Stifterverband, 2022).
Additionally, the German education system offers second-chance education opportunities (Zweiter Bildungsweg, ZBW). The ZBW is part of adult education and enables adults to obtain a school-leaving certificate later in life. This opportunity exists for all levels of secondary education. However, since the ZBW, like other parts of the education system, is regulated by the states, individual regulations and opportunities vary depending on the state. Despite the availability of second-chance education, the overall number of people obtaining school-leaving qualifications through this route is rather small, with around 50,000 participants (Käpplinger, Reuter and Pfeil, 2020).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2023. “92 Prozent der Kinder von 3 Jahren bis zum Schuleintritt besuchten 2022 eine Kita.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/aktuelles/presse/pressemitteilungen/92-prozent-der-kinder-von-3-jahren-bis-zum-schuleintritt-besuchten-2022-eine-kita-228528
Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung. 2023. “Weiterhin Ungleichheiten bei der Kita-Nutzung.” Bevölkerungsforschung Aktuell 2. https://www.bib.bund.de/Publikation/2023/pdf/Bevoelkerungsforschung-Aktuell-2-2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2
Deutscher Bundestag. 2019. “Schulpflicht und Gestaltung des Schulwesens Zulässigkeit der Verpflichtung von Schülern zu gesellschaftlichem oder sozialem Engagement.” https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/678442/22ae33f7a7612a3560dfba57dd5a4549/WD-3-259-19-pdf-data.pdf
Edelstein, B. 2013. “Das Bildungssystem im Deutschland.” https://www.bpb.de/themen/bildung/dossier-bildung/163283/das-bildungssystem-in-deutschland
Käpplinger, B., Reuter, M., and P. Pfeil. 2020. “Der Zweite Bildungsweg in den Bundesländern –Strukturen und Perspektiven.” https://www.gew.de/fileadmin/media/publikationen/hv/GEW/GEW-Stiftungen/MTS_-_Gefoerderte_Projekte/20200923-Der-Zweite-Bildungsweg-in-den-Bundesl–ndern-MTS.pdf
OECD. 2023. “Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/e13bef63-en/1/3/3/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/e13bef63-en&_csp_=a4f4b3d408c9dd70d167f10de61b8717&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2023. “Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html
Stifterverband. 2022. “Hochschul-Bildungs-Report 2020, Abschlussbericht, Hochschulbildung in der Transformation.” https://www.hochschulbildungsreport.de/sites/hsbr/files/hochschul-bildungs-report_abschlussbericht_2022.pdf
Wößmann, L., Schoner, F., Freudl, V., and Pfaehler, F. 2023. “Der ifo-„Ein Herz für Kinder“- Chancenmonitor: Wie (un-)gerecht sind die Bildungschancen von Kindern aus verschiedenen Familien in Deutschland verteilt?” ifo Schnelldienst 76: 1-47. https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/sd-2023-04-freundl-et-al-chancenmonitor.pdf
On the federal level, Article 24 of Book 8 of the German Social Code – Child and Youth Services – regulates that children from ages one to three, as well as children from age three until the beginning of primary school, have a legal claim to early childhood development, care, and preprimary education. In March 2023, 90.1% of children between the ages of three and six, as well as 36.4% of children below the age of three, were enrolled in child daycares. The childcare quotas vary across individual states. In Bremen, for instance, only 86% of children over three years old attend child daycare, while the percentage is considerably higher in Thuringia at 94.4% (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2023).
While children from the age of one on have the right to a childcare slot, the demand exceeds the supply of available slots, meaning not every child has access to preprimary education. This particularly applies to children below three years of age, as the need and actual rate of childcare for this group differ by 13.6 percentage points (BMFSFJ, 2023). A study by the Federal Institute for Population Research showed that disadvantaged families are disproportionately affected by this issue. Children below three from families vulnerable to poverty and with parents with low levels of education are less likely to receive a place in childcare. Furthermore, only 24% of children who do not speak German at home are in childcare, compared to 38% of children from primarily German-speaking households. These findings are problematic, as these children could particularly benefit from preprimary education (Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung, 2023).
Nevertheless, the share of children enrolled in early childhood education systems in Germany is still above the OECD average and the EU25 average (OECD, 2023).
Regarding primary and secondary education, the previously mentioned compulsory schooling (Schulpflicht) is regulated by the school laws of the respective state, with the specific structure varying between states. Once schooling is no longer compulsory, secondary schools have mandatory attendance (Deutscher Bundestag, 2019). These regulations result in high enrollment rates in Germany, with a rate of 99% for the age group of six to fourteen and 88% for ages 15 to 19, which is above the OECD average (OECD, 2023).
During primary school, all children, regardless of socioeconomic background, attend the same educational institutions. Depending on the state, primary education extends from year one to year four or until year six. Secondary education is divided into different school forms with varying levels of education. Students receive a recommendation for secondary school based on grades and, occasionally, other criteria such as learning behavior (Schullaufbahnempfehlung). While it is not mandatory to follow this recommendation, some states require students to take an entrance exam or pass a probationary period if they choose a non-recommended type of school (Edelstein, 2013).
Equitable access to all levels of secondary and tertiary education, regardless of socioeconomic background, is an issue in Germany. For example, the probability of a child attending the highest level of secondary schooling (Gymnasium) is only 21.1% if no parent graduated with an Abitur and the family’s net monthly household income is below €2,600. This probability increases to 80.3% if both parents have an Abitur and earn a net monthly household income of over €5,500 (Wößmann et al., 2023). Similarly, only 27% of students from non-academic households go on to study at a university, while this share is 79% for students from academic households (Stifterverband, 2022).
Additionally, the German education system offers second-chance education opportunities (Zweiter Bildungsweg, ZBW). The ZBW is part of adult education and enables adults to obtain a school-leaving certificate later in life. This opportunity exists for all levels of secondary education. However, since the ZBW, like other parts of the education system, is regulated by the states, individual regulations and opportunities vary depending on the state. Despite the availability of second-chance education, the overall number of people obtaining school-leaving qualifications through this route is rather small, with around 50,000 participants (Käpplinger, Reuter and Pfeil, 2020).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2023. “92 Prozent der Kinder von 3 Jahren bis zum Schuleintritt besuchten 2022 eine Kita.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/aktuelles/presse/pressemitteilungen/92-prozent-der-kinder-von-3-jahren-bis-zum-schuleintritt-besuchten-2022-eine-kita-228528
Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung. 2023. “Weiterhin Ungleichheiten bei der Kita-Nutzung.” Bevölkerungsforschung Aktuell 2. https://www.bib.bund.de/Publikation/2023/pdf/Bevoelkerungsforschung-Aktuell-2-2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2
Deutscher Bundestag. 2019. “Schulpflicht und Gestaltung des Schulwesens Zulässigkeit der Verpflichtung von Schülern zu gesellschaftlichem oder sozialem Engagement.” https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/678442/22ae33f7a7612a3560dfba57dd5a4549/WD-3-259-19-pdf-data.pdf
Edelstein, B. 2013. “Das Bildungssystem im Deutschland.” https://www.bpb.de/themen/bildung/dossier-bildung/163283/das-bildungssystem-in-deutschland
Käpplinger, B., Reuter, M., and P. Pfeil. 2020. “Der Zweite Bildungsweg in den Bundesländern –Strukturen und Perspektiven.” https://www.gew.de/fileadmin/media/publikationen/hv/GEW/GEW-Stiftungen/MTS_-_Gefoerderte_Projekte/20200923-Der-Zweite-Bildungsweg-in-den-Bundesl–ndern-MTS.pdf
OECD. 2023. “Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/e13bef63-en/1/3/3/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/e13bef63-en&_csp_=a4f4b3d408c9dd70d167f10de61b8717&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2023. “Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html
Stifterverband. 2022. “Hochschul-Bildungs-Report 2020, Abschlussbericht, Hochschulbildung in der Transformation.” https://www.hochschulbildungsreport.de/sites/hsbr/files/hochschul-bildungs-report_abschlussbericht_2022.pdf
Wößmann, L., Schoner, F., Freudl, V., and Pfaehler, F. 2023. “Der ifo-„Ein Herz für Kinder“- Chancenmonitor: Wie (un-)gerecht sind die Bildungschancen von Kindern aus verschiedenen Familien in Deutschland verteilt?” ifo Schnelldienst 76: 1-47. https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/sd-2023-04-freundl-et-al-chancenmonitor.pdf
Graph View
To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
According to the principle of local self-governance, municipalities in Germany are responsible for providing essential services (Daseinsvorsorge) (Hanesch, 2020). Additionally, there are different forms of basic income support. First, following the Second Book of the Social Code (SGB II), the citizen’s benefit (Bürgergeld) replaced the previous unemployment assistance in 2023. This benefit ensures the socio-cultural subsistence minimum, considering the needs for food, clothing, personal hygiene, household goods, household energy without the shares attributable to heating and hot water production, and participation in social and cultural life.
Generally, income support depends on an individual’s personal situation. For single people, parents, and individuals over 18, the citizen’s benefit amounts to €502 in 2023. Importantly, to be eligible, citizens must be employable (BMAS, 2023). Individuals in need who are not employable due to illness, disability, or having reached retirement age can receive social assistance (Sozialhilfe), which is regulated in the Twelfth Book of the Social Code (SGB XII). Like the citizen’s benefit, social assistance is meant to provide a minimum subsistence level in case of insufficient income and assets (BMAS, 2021).
As the allowance is continuously adjusted for inflation, the allowance for the citizen’s benefit and social assistance will be raised by €61 for 2024. Consequently, single adults will receive €562 (Die Bundesregierung, 2023b).
The Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (BMAS) and the Federal Employment Agency provide detailed information about access to basic income support on their websites, including eligibility for citizens’ benefits and the application process. Generally, applications for citizens’ benefits can be completed online. However, the Federal Employment Agency also offers in-person consultations at respective job centers where individuals can apply for the benefit (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2023a).
For individuals receiving minimum-income benefits under SGB II or XII (citizens’ benefit or social assistance), rent and heating costs are covered in addition to the benefit allowance. However, the costs must be reasonable and should be discussed with the job center first (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2023b). If individuals are not eligible for a citizens’ benefit, they can request support for low-income households in the form of a housing benefit (Wohngeld). This housing benefit is a contribution to rent or homeowner charges, meaning it only partially covers the costs. The federal government’s housing benefit reform in January 2023 increased both the size of the housing benefit and the number of people eligible to receive it. Additionally, the reform introduced a permanent heating cost component. To determine eligibility and the amount of the benefit, the Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building (BMWSB) provides a housing benefit calculator on its website (BMWSB, 2023).
The provision of water and sanitation is obligatory for the state and is regulated by municipalities as part of their infrastructure services. Water is an operating cost included in the rent for a house or an apartment, and it is therefore either fully or partially covered for individuals who receive minimum-income benefits or housing benefits. Sanitation requires a fee to the municipality or public or private supply companies. While there are no special regulations, such as reductions or benefits for low-income individuals, the costs for those entitled to citizen’s benefits or social assistance are covered, as they are considered housing costs. However, these costs must be reasonable. Otherwise, the housing benefit allowance includes sanitation as part of ancillary costs along with rent and heating (Hanesch, 2020).
Concerning energy, companies do not offer tariffs based on income, so low-income households cannot receive special tariffs. Household energy is, however, part of the allowance provided by minimum-income benefits and is thereby covered for those entitled to citizens’ benefits or social assistance. Energy can further be partly covered through the housing benefit if it falls under heating costs (Hanesch, 2020). Additionally, following the increased costs for energy, one-off energy price flat rates of €200 were paid to university students in 2023. Employed persons and pensioners received €300 in 2022 (Die Bundesregierung, 2023a).
In June, July, and August 2022, a public transport ticket for nine euros per month was offered. The so-called 9-Euro Ticket could be used for all local and regional transportation throughout Germany. As of May 2023, a similar public transportation ticket for €49 (Deutschlandticket) is available. Various large towns offer favorable “Social Tickets” (Sozialtickets) for transfer recipients (Arbeitslosenhilfe, 2023). While already available at some universities, students are expected to receive the ticket with a 40% discount starting in the summer semester of 2024 (Die Bundesregierung, 2023c). Although this ticket is available to everyone, financial relief for digital infrastructure is only available to people eligible for minimum-income benefits following SGB II and XII, as the received money is meant to cover digital services (Hanesch, 2020).
Regarding financial services, Germany introduced the Payment Accounts Act (Zahlungskontengesetz, ZKG) in 2016, which transposed the European Payment Accounts Directive into German law. The act stipulates that every consumer residing in the EU has the right to a payment account. This right exists regardless of a person’s creditworthiness and also applies to asylum-seekers or people without a permanent residence. According to the ZKG, every institution is required to offer a basic account option, including all basic payment services. While this means that institutions must enable cash deposits and withdrawals, transfers, direct debits and card payments, loans or overdrafts are not available with a basic account (Hanesch, 2020).
Citations:
Arbeitslosenhilfe. 2023. “Sozialticket: Günstig mit den Öffis unterwegs.” https://www.arbeitslosenselbsthilfe.org/sozialticket/
BMAS. 2021. “Grundsätze der Sozialhilfe.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Soziales/Sozialhilfe/Grundsaetze-der-Sozialhilfe/grundsaetze-der-sozialhilfe-art.html
BMAS. 2023. “Bürgergeld.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Arbeit/Grundsicherung-Buergergeld/grundsicherung-buergergeld.html
BMWSD. 2023. “Wohngeld.” https://www.bmwsb.bund.de/Webs/BMWSB/DE/themen/stadt-wohnen/wohnraumfoerderung/wohngeld/wohngeld-node.html
Bundesagentur für Arbeit. 2023a. “Voraussetzungen für Bürgergeld.” https://www.arbeitsagentur.de/arbeitslos-arbeit-finden/buergergeld/finanziell-absichern/voraussetzungen-einkommen-vermoegen
Bundesagentur für Arbeit. 2023. “Wohnen zur Miete.” https://www.arbeitsagentur.de/arbeitslos-arbeit-finden/buergergeld/wohnen
Die Bundesregierung. 2023a. “Energiekosten: Zuschuss von bis zu 300 Euro.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/schwerpunkte/entlastung-fuer-deutschland/energiepreispauschale-2124992#:~:text=Aufgrund%20der%20Energiekrise%20in%20Deutschland,in%20H%C3%B6he%20von%20300%20Euro
Die Bundesregierung. 20233b. “Regelsätze steigen 2024 deutlich.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/arbeit-und-soziales/regelsaetze-erhoehung-2222924
Die Bundesregierung. 2023. “Ein Ticket für ganz Deutschland.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/aktuelles/deutschlandticket-2134074
Hanesch, W. 2020. ESPN Thematic Report on Access to Essential Services for Low-Income People – Germany. Brussels: European Commission.
Generally, income support depends on an individual’s personal situation. For single people, parents, and individuals over 18, the citizen’s benefit amounts to €502 in 2023. Importantly, to be eligible, citizens must be employable (BMAS, 2023). Individuals in need who are not employable due to illness, disability, or having reached retirement age can receive social assistance (Sozialhilfe), which is regulated in the Twelfth Book of the Social Code (SGB XII). Like the citizen’s benefit, social assistance is meant to provide a minimum subsistence level in case of insufficient income and assets (BMAS, 2021).
As the allowance is continuously adjusted for inflation, the allowance for the citizen’s benefit and social assistance will be raised by €61 for 2024. Consequently, single adults will receive €562 (Die Bundesregierung, 2023b).
The Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (BMAS) and the Federal Employment Agency provide detailed information about access to basic income support on their websites, including eligibility for citizens’ benefits and the application process. Generally, applications for citizens’ benefits can be completed online. However, the Federal Employment Agency also offers in-person consultations at respective job centers where individuals can apply for the benefit (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2023a).
For individuals receiving minimum-income benefits under SGB II or XII (citizens’ benefit or social assistance), rent and heating costs are covered in addition to the benefit allowance. However, the costs must be reasonable and should be discussed with the job center first (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2023b). If individuals are not eligible for a citizens’ benefit, they can request support for low-income households in the form of a housing benefit (Wohngeld). This housing benefit is a contribution to rent or homeowner charges, meaning it only partially covers the costs. The federal government’s housing benefit reform in January 2023 increased both the size of the housing benefit and the number of people eligible to receive it. Additionally, the reform introduced a permanent heating cost component. To determine eligibility and the amount of the benefit, the Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building (BMWSB) provides a housing benefit calculator on its website (BMWSB, 2023).
The provision of water and sanitation is obligatory for the state and is regulated by municipalities as part of their infrastructure services. Water is an operating cost included in the rent for a house or an apartment, and it is therefore either fully or partially covered for individuals who receive minimum-income benefits or housing benefits. Sanitation requires a fee to the municipality or public or private supply companies. While there are no special regulations, such as reductions or benefits for low-income individuals, the costs for those entitled to citizen’s benefits or social assistance are covered, as they are considered housing costs. However, these costs must be reasonable. Otherwise, the housing benefit allowance includes sanitation as part of ancillary costs along with rent and heating (Hanesch, 2020).
Concerning energy, companies do not offer tariffs based on income, so low-income households cannot receive special tariffs. Household energy is, however, part of the allowance provided by minimum-income benefits and is thereby covered for those entitled to citizens’ benefits or social assistance. Energy can further be partly covered through the housing benefit if it falls under heating costs (Hanesch, 2020). Additionally, following the increased costs for energy, one-off energy price flat rates of €200 were paid to university students in 2023. Employed persons and pensioners received €300 in 2022 (Die Bundesregierung, 2023a).
In June, July, and August 2022, a public transport ticket for nine euros per month was offered. The so-called 9-Euro Ticket could be used for all local and regional transportation throughout Germany. As of May 2023, a similar public transportation ticket for €49 (Deutschlandticket) is available. Various large towns offer favorable “Social Tickets” (Sozialtickets) for transfer recipients (Arbeitslosenhilfe, 2023). While already available at some universities, students are expected to receive the ticket with a 40% discount starting in the summer semester of 2024 (Die Bundesregierung, 2023c). Although this ticket is available to everyone, financial relief for digital infrastructure is only available to people eligible for minimum-income benefits following SGB II and XII, as the received money is meant to cover digital services (Hanesch, 2020).
Regarding financial services, Germany introduced the Payment Accounts Act (Zahlungskontengesetz, ZKG) in 2016, which transposed the European Payment Accounts Directive into German law. The act stipulates that every consumer residing in the EU has the right to a payment account. This right exists regardless of a person’s creditworthiness and also applies to asylum-seekers or people without a permanent residence. According to the ZKG, every institution is required to offer a basic account option, including all basic payment services. While this means that institutions must enable cash deposits and withdrawals, transfers, direct debits and card payments, loans or overdrafts are not available with a basic account (Hanesch, 2020).
Citations:
Arbeitslosenhilfe. 2023. “Sozialticket: Günstig mit den Öffis unterwegs.” https://www.arbeitslosenselbsthilfe.org/sozialticket/
BMAS. 2021. “Grundsätze der Sozialhilfe.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Soziales/Sozialhilfe/Grundsaetze-der-Sozialhilfe/grundsaetze-der-sozialhilfe-art.html
BMAS. 2023. “Bürgergeld.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Arbeit/Grundsicherung-Buergergeld/grundsicherung-buergergeld.html
BMWSD. 2023. “Wohngeld.” https://www.bmwsb.bund.de/Webs/BMWSB/DE/themen/stadt-wohnen/wohnraumfoerderung/wohngeld/wohngeld-node.html
Bundesagentur für Arbeit. 2023a. “Voraussetzungen für Bürgergeld.” https://www.arbeitsagentur.de/arbeitslos-arbeit-finden/buergergeld/finanziell-absichern/voraussetzungen-einkommen-vermoegen
Bundesagentur für Arbeit. 2023. “Wohnen zur Miete.” https://www.arbeitsagentur.de/arbeitslos-arbeit-finden/buergergeld/wohnen
Die Bundesregierung. 2023a. “Energiekosten: Zuschuss von bis zu 300 Euro.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/schwerpunkte/entlastung-fuer-deutschland/energiepreispauschale-2124992#:~:text=Aufgrund%20der%20Energiekrise%20in%20Deutschland,in%20H%C3%B6he%20von%20300%20Euro
Die Bundesregierung. 20233b. “Regelsätze steigen 2024 deutlich.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/themen/arbeit-und-soziales/regelsaetze-erhoehung-2222924
Die Bundesregierung. 2023. “Ein Ticket für ganz Deutschland.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/aktuelles/deutschlandticket-2134074
Hanesch, W. 2020. ESPN Thematic Report on Access to Essential Services for Low-Income People – Germany. Brussels: European Commission.
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
While the previous text outlined existing policies, the following text illustrates their quality. As Germany introduced the unemployment benefit reform in 2023, no statistics are yet available to assess how well the new benefit ensures the fulfillment of basic human needs. The following statements are therefore based on the preceding unemployment benefit.
Nevertheless, while minimum-income benefits under SGB II and XII are calculated based on an income and consumption sample to ensure the socio-cultural subsistence minimum, they are often criticized as insufficient. Simultaneously, critics argue that the increased allowance from the citizens’ benefit reduces the motivation for unemployed individuals to seek work (Handelsblatt, 2022).
Despite the coverage of housing costs through minimum-income benefits or housing allowances, 41.5% of the population at risk of poverty spent more than 40% of their disposable income on total housing costs in 2022. This is significantly higher than the EU average of 33.1% (Eurostat, 2023a).
To assess the quality of policies ensuring access to water and sanitation, the proportion of the population with utility bill arrears can be considered. In 2018, 7.4% of the population at risk of poverty in Germany had arrears on their utility bills. Although this proportion was higher than that of the total German population, it was significantly below the EU-27 average of 16.3%. Furthermore, an interruption of the water supply in Germany can only occur in the case of eviction (European Commission, 2020).
In contrast, the number of people at risk of poverty who could not afford regular use of public transportation in 2014 was above the EU-27 average: 9.9% compared to 5.8%. Additionally, the share of low-income individuals reporting they could not use public transportation regularly was more than 5 percentage points higher than the share of the total population facing the same difficulties. However, because these statistics are from 2014, the effect of the new Deutschlandticket has not been taken into account.
According to the European Social Policy Network (ESPN), Germany has national coverage of uninterrupted basic energy supply (European Commission, 2022). While this indicates that every household can access energy, cash benefits do not seem to fully ensure complete access to energy. As described under “Policies Targeting Equal Access to Essential Services and Basic Income Support,” 13.6% of the population at risk of poverty could not keep their homes adequately warm in 2022. Still, this share is lower than the EU average of 20.1% (Eurostat, 2023b).
Regarding access to digital infrastructure, available cash benefits often do not enable full access to an internet connection for personal use at home. While only 2.6% of the overall population could not afford an internet connection in 2022, this share increases considerably for unemployed people to 11.9%, which is above the EU average of 6.9% (Eurostat, 2023c).
Finally, according to ESPN national experts, Germany’s policies generally make it easy for consumers to open a Basic Account. However, these accounts can be expensive, potentially costing more than standard bank accounts, which can deter people from accessing such accounts (European Commission, 2020).
Citations:
European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Baptista, I., Marlier, E. 2020. Access to Essential Services for People on Low Incomes in Europe: An Analysis of Policies in 35 Countries. Publications Office.
Eurostat. 2023. “Housing Cost Overburden Rate by Poverty Status – EU-SILC Survey.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi163/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023b. “Population Unable to Keep Home Adequately Warm by Poverty Status.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SDG_07_60/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023c. “Persons Who Cannot Afford Internet Connection for Personal Use at Home by Employment Status and Income Quintile.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_mddu07b/default/table?lang=en
Handelsblatt. 2022. “Sozialverband kritisiert neue Regelsätze als zu gering.” https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/buergergeld-sozialverband-kritisiert-neue-regelsaetze-als-zu-gering/28675686.html
Nevertheless, while minimum-income benefits under SGB II and XII are calculated based on an income and consumption sample to ensure the socio-cultural subsistence minimum, they are often criticized as insufficient. Simultaneously, critics argue that the increased allowance from the citizens’ benefit reduces the motivation for unemployed individuals to seek work (Handelsblatt, 2022).
Despite the coverage of housing costs through minimum-income benefits or housing allowances, 41.5% of the population at risk of poverty spent more than 40% of their disposable income on total housing costs in 2022. This is significantly higher than the EU average of 33.1% (Eurostat, 2023a).
To assess the quality of policies ensuring access to water and sanitation, the proportion of the population with utility bill arrears can be considered. In 2018, 7.4% of the population at risk of poverty in Germany had arrears on their utility bills. Although this proportion was higher than that of the total German population, it was significantly below the EU-27 average of 16.3%. Furthermore, an interruption of the water supply in Germany can only occur in the case of eviction (European Commission, 2020).
In contrast, the number of people at risk of poverty who could not afford regular use of public transportation in 2014 was above the EU-27 average: 9.9% compared to 5.8%. Additionally, the share of low-income individuals reporting they could not use public transportation regularly was more than 5 percentage points higher than the share of the total population facing the same difficulties. However, because these statistics are from 2014, the effect of the new Deutschlandticket has not been taken into account.
According to the European Social Policy Network (ESPN), Germany has national coverage of uninterrupted basic energy supply (European Commission, 2022). While this indicates that every household can access energy, cash benefits do not seem to fully ensure complete access to energy. As described under “Policies Targeting Equal Access to Essential Services and Basic Income Support,” 13.6% of the population at risk of poverty could not keep their homes adequately warm in 2022. Still, this share is lower than the EU average of 20.1% (Eurostat, 2023b).
Regarding access to digital infrastructure, available cash benefits often do not enable full access to an internet connection for personal use at home. While only 2.6% of the overall population could not afford an internet connection in 2022, this share increases considerably for unemployed people to 11.9%, which is above the EU average of 6.9% (Eurostat, 2023c).
Finally, according to ESPN national experts, Germany’s policies generally make it easy for consumers to open a Basic Account. However, these accounts can be expensive, potentially costing more than standard bank accounts, which can deter people from accessing such accounts (European Commission, 2020).
Citations:
European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Baptista, I., Marlier, E. 2020. Access to Essential Services for People on Low Incomes in Europe: An Analysis of Policies in 35 Countries. Publications Office.
Eurostat. 2023. “Housing Cost Overburden Rate by Poverty Status – EU-SILC Survey.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi163/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023b. “Population Unable to Keep Home Adequately Warm by Poverty Status.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SDG_07_60/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023c. “Persons Who Cannot Afford Internet Connection for Personal Use at Home by Employment Status and Income Quintile.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_mddu07b/default/table?lang=en
Handelsblatt. 2022. “Sozialverband kritisiert neue Regelsätze als zu gering.” https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/buergergeld-sozialverband-kritisiert-neue-regelsaetze-als-zu-gering/28675686.html
Graph View
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
Germany is investing in the digitalization of its health system. Sixteen percent of the €25.4 billion German Recovery and Resilience Plan is dedicated to healthcare investments. The funds are planned to be invested in the digital strengthening of public healthcare, hospital modernization, and more (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023, p. 17ff.). Additionally, a public research data center for health (Forschungsdatenzentrum Gesundheit) is currently under construction. It will collect data from the statutory health insurances and use it for research, prevention, and better control of the health system. It will use artificial intelligence to collect and analyze data, optimize processes, and deliver data-supported diagnoses and therapy recommendations (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, 2023a).
In Germany, it is mandatory to be insured in health insurance, either statutory or private. As a result, only 0.1% of Germany’s population is not part of health insurance. Additionally, Germany had the highest per-capita healthcare spending in the European Union, with more than €5,000 per person in 2021. Citizens’ direct payments for health services not covered by insurance were among the lowest in the EU at 12%, compared to an EU average of 15%. Furthermore, Germany has one of the lowest percentage rates of unmet needs for medical care in the European Union, with a rate lower than 1%. The share of medical consultations by phone increased during the COVID-19 pandemic but remains low compared to other EU countries (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
Compared to other European OECD countries, the German health insurance system has one of the best coverage rates for medical treatments. Additionally, 76% of patients were able to secure a doctor appointment the same day or the next day the last time they needed medical care. This is the highest rate among all European OECD countries (Finkenstädt, 2017, p. 69ff.).
The number of surgeries conducted in Germany dropped during the Covid-19 pandemic; however, the decline was less severe than in other EU countries. This indicates that the health system was able to maintain its usual services during the crisis more effectively than the systems in other countries (OECD/European Observatory on Health System and Policies, 2023).
Hospitals face significant challenges due to labor shortages of nurses, caretakers, and doctors, as well as limited capacities, leading to inadequate patient care (Tagesspiegel, 2022). To address these issues, a reform of hospitals and their funding is planned. The reform aims to change the funding structure to ensure hospitals are economically sustainable, even with fewer patients than expected. Previously, funding was calculated based on the number of patients treated, which sometimes forced hospitals to discharge patients early. The reform seeks to ensure that decisions about patient treatment are based on medical rather than economic considerations (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, 2023b).
As in other industrial countries, high demand and supply chain problems have caused temporary shortages in pharmaceuticals in recent years, prompting discussions on the need to reshore production to Europe and Germany. However, in typical years, the supply of drugs remains stable. In Europe, Germany leads in the rapid deployment of innovative pharmaceuticals (Pharma Fakten, 2023).
Between 1992 and 2020, spending on healthcare in Germany increased by an average of 3.6% per year, and the share of healthcare spending compared to the gross domestic product also increased (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2022). The insurance contributions are not sufficient to cover total healthcare expenses. In 2019, expenses exceeding €50 billion had to be financed by governmental grants (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2019).
Citations:
Betanet. n.d. “Früherkennung von Krankheiten.” https://www.betanet.de/frueherkennung-von-krankheiten.html
Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft. 2023. “Mehr Kinderschutz in der Werbung: Pläne für klare Regeln zu an Kindern gerichteter Lebensmittelwerbung.” https://www.bmel.de/DE/themen/ernaehrung/gesunde-ernaehrung/kita-und-schule/lebensmittelwerbung-kinder.html
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. n.d. “Prävention.” https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/service/begriffe-von-a-z/p/praevention
Finkenstädt. 2017. Zugangshürden in der Gesundheitsversorgung – Ein europäischer Überblick. https://www.wip-pkv.de/fileadmin/DATEN/Dokumente/Studien_in_Buchform/WIP_Zugangshuerden_in_der_Gesundheitsversorgung.pdf
OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 2023. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/21dd4679-en
Stiftung Gesundheitswesen. 2021. “Prävention: Der Mix macht’s.” https://stiftung-gesundheitswissen.de/gesundes-leben/kompetenz-gesundheit/praevention-der-mix-machts
Pharma Fakten. 2023. “Große Unterschiede in europäischer Arzneimittelversorgung: ‘Kein tragbarer Zustand’.” https://pharma-fakten.de/news/grosse-unterschiede-in-europaeischer-arzneimittelversorgung/
In Germany, it is mandatory to be insured in health insurance, either statutory or private. As a result, only 0.1% of Germany’s population is not part of health insurance. Additionally, Germany had the highest per-capita healthcare spending in the European Union, with more than €5,000 per person in 2021. Citizens’ direct payments for health services not covered by insurance were among the lowest in the EU at 12%, compared to an EU average of 15%. Furthermore, Germany has one of the lowest percentage rates of unmet needs for medical care in the European Union, with a rate lower than 1%. The share of medical consultations by phone increased during the COVID-19 pandemic but remains low compared to other EU countries (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
Compared to other European OECD countries, the German health insurance system has one of the best coverage rates for medical treatments. Additionally, 76% of patients were able to secure a doctor appointment the same day or the next day the last time they needed medical care. This is the highest rate among all European OECD countries (Finkenstädt, 2017, p. 69ff.).
The number of surgeries conducted in Germany dropped during the Covid-19 pandemic; however, the decline was less severe than in other EU countries. This indicates that the health system was able to maintain its usual services during the crisis more effectively than the systems in other countries (OECD/European Observatory on Health System and Policies, 2023).
Hospitals face significant challenges due to labor shortages of nurses, caretakers, and doctors, as well as limited capacities, leading to inadequate patient care (Tagesspiegel, 2022). To address these issues, a reform of hospitals and their funding is planned. The reform aims to change the funding structure to ensure hospitals are economically sustainable, even with fewer patients than expected. Previously, funding was calculated based on the number of patients treated, which sometimes forced hospitals to discharge patients early. The reform seeks to ensure that decisions about patient treatment are based on medical rather than economic considerations (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, 2023b).
As in other industrial countries, high demand and supply chain problems have caused temporary shortages in pharmaceuticals in recent years, prompting discussions on the need to reshore production to Europe and Germany. However, in typical years, the supply of drugs remains stable. In Europe, Germany leads in the rapid deployment of innovative pharmaceuticals (Pharma Fakten, 2023).
Between 1992 and 2020, spending on healthcare in Germany increased by an average of 3.6% per year, and the share of healthcare spending compared to the gross domestic product also increased (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2022). The insurance contributions are not sufficient to cover total healthcare expenses. In 2019, expenses exceeding €50 billion had to be financed by governmental grants (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2019).
Citations:
Betanet. n.d. “Früherkennung von Krankheiten.” https://www.betanet.de/frueherkennung-von-krankheiten.html
Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft. 2023. “Mehr Kinderschutz in der Werbung: Pläne für klare Regeln zu an Kindern gerichteter Lebensmittelwerbung.” https://www.bmel.de/DE/themen/ernaehrung/gesunde-ernaehrung/kita-und-schule/lebensmittelwerbung-kinder.html
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. n.d. “Prävention.” https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/service/begriffe-von-a-z/p/praevention
Finkenstädt. 2017. Zugangshürden in der Gesundheitsversorgung – Ein europäischer Überblick. https://www.wip-pkv.de/fileadmin/DATEN/Dokumente/Studien_in_Buchform/WIP_Zugangshuerden_in_der_Gesundheitsversorgung.pdf
OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 2023. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/21dd4679-en
Stiftung Gesundheitswesen. 2021. “Prävention: Der Mix macht’s.” https://stiftung-gesundheitswissen.de/gesundes-leben/kompetenz-gesundheit/praevention-der-mix-machts
Pharma Fakten. 2023. “Große Unterschiede in europäischer Arzneimittelversorgung: ‘Kein tragbarer Zustand’.” https://pharma-fakten.de/news/grosse-unterschiede-in-europaeischer-arzneimittelversorgung/
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
Health insurances in Germany finance various examinations for the early detection of diseases such as cancer and diabetes, starting at different ages (Betanet, n.d.). Statutory insurants receive a reminder about the opportunity to undergo a cancer screening every five years (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
To prevent such diseases, various strategies aim to sensitize the population about the importance of balanced nutrition and physical exercise. The national plan of action for this cause, named IN FORM, was founded in 2008. It consolidates health initiatives into a national strategy and seeks to prevent malnutrition, lack of physical exercise, and excess weight by improving the population’s knowledge about healthy lifestyles and motivating adherence to such lifestyles (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, n.d.). Since 2015, most governmental prevention expenses have been directed to schools, kindergartens, nursing facilities, and firms to enhance health and prevention knowledge among the population, starting from a young age (Stiftung Gesundheitswissen, 2021).
The federal government plans to prohibit advertising for foods high in sugar, fat, or salt directed at children in all relevant media to prevent unbalanced eating and excess weight (Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, 2023).
The prevention of alcohol and tobacco consumption in Germany is progressing slowly compared to other European countries. However, an increase in tobacco taxes is taking place from 2022 to 2026, and advertising for tobacco was banned on billboards and in cinemas in 2020. Germany was the last EU country to do so, though. There is no smoking ban in private cars yet (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
Between 2011 and 2019, the avoidable mortality rate – deaths that could have been prevented through better public health measures or a more effective healthcare system – declined by approximately 8%. The avoidable mortality rate remains below the EU average (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
Germany has one of the lowest percentages of unmet needs for medical care in the European Union, with under 1%. Moreover, there is only a negligible difference in the unmet needs rate among different income groups (OECD/European Observatory on Health System and Policies, 2023).
The German health insurance system has one of the best coverage rates for medical treatments compared to other European OECD countries. This is true for both statutory and private insurance (Finkenstädt, 2017).
In 2004, the principle of integrated care was introduced into German law. The government aimed to prevent multiple examinations of the same patient by different doctors, thereby saving costs and improving coordination among care, inpatient treatment, and rehabilitation efforts, as well as coordination between family doctors and hospitals (Der Paritätische Gesamtverband, 2011).
Citations:
Betanet. n.d. “Früherkennung von Krankheiten.” https://www.betanet.de/frueherkennung-von-krankheiten.html
Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft. 2023. “Mehr Kinderschutz in der Werbung: Pläne für klare Regeln zu an Kindern gerichteter Lebensmittelwerbung.” https://www.bmel.de/DE/themen/ernaehrung/gesunde-ernaehrung/kita-und-schule/lebensmittelwerbung-kinder.html
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. n.d. “Prävention.” https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/service/begriffe-von-a-z/p/praevention
Finkenstädt. 2017. “Zugangshürden in der Gesundheitsversorgung – Ein europäischer Überblick.” https://www.wip-pkv.de/fileadmin/DATEN/Dokumente/Studien_in_Buchform/WIP_Zugangshuerden_in_der_Gesundheitsversorgung.pdf
OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 2023. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/21dd4679-en
Stiftung Gesundheitswesen. 2021. “Prävention: Der Mix macht’s.” https://stiftung-gesundheitswissen.de/gesundes-leben/kompetenz-gesundheit/praevention-der-mix-machts
To prevent such diseases, various strategies aim to sensitize the population about the importance of balanced nutrition and physical exercise. The national plan of action for this cause, named IN FORM, was founded in 2008. It consolidates health initiatives into a national strategy and seeks to prevent malnutrition, lack of physical exercise, and excess weight by improving the population’s knowledge about healthy lifestyles and motivating adherence to such lifestyles (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, n.d.). Since 2015, most governmental prevention expenses have been directed to schools, kindergartens, nursing facilities, and firms to enhance health and prevention knowledge among the population, starting from a young age (Stiftung Gesundheitswissen, 2021).
The federal government plans to prohibit advertising for foods high in sugar, fat, or salt directed at children in all relevant media to prevent unbalanced eating and excess weight (Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, 2023).
The prevention of alcohol and tobacco consumption in Germany is progressing slowly compared to other European countries. However, an increase in tobacco taxes is taking place from 2022 to 2026, and advertising for tobacco was banned on billboards and in cinemas in 2020. Germany was the last EU country to do so, though. There is no smoking ban in private cars yet (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
Between 2011 and 2019, the avoidable mortality rate – deaths that could have been prevented through better public health measures or a more effective healthcare system – declined by approximately 8%. The avoidable mortality rate remains below the EU average (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
Germany has one of the lowest percentages of unmet needs for medical care in the European Union, with under 1%. Moreover, there is only a negligible difference in the unmet needs rate among different income groups (OECD/European Observatory on Health System and Policies, 2023).
The German health insurance system has one of the best coverage rates for medical treatments compared to other European OECD countries. This is true for both statutory and private insurance (Finkenstädt, 2017).
In 2004, the principle of integrated care was introduced into German law. The government aimed to prevent multiple examinations of the same patient by different doctors, thereby saving costs and improving coordination among care, inpatient treatment, and rehabilitation efforts, as well as coordination between family doctors and hospitals (Der Paritätische Gesamtverband, 2011).
Citations:
Betanet. n.d. “Früherkennung von Krankheiten.” https://www.betanet.de/frueherkennung-von-krankheiten.html
Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft. 2023. “Mehr Kinderschutz in der Werbung: Pläne für klare Regeln zu an Kindern gerichteter Lebensmittelwerbung.” https://www.bmel.de/DE/themen/ernaehrung/gesunde-ernaehrung/kita-und-schule/lebensmittelwerbung-kinder.html
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. n.d. “Prävention.” https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/service/begriffe-von-a-z/p/praevention
Finkenstädt. 2017. “Zugangshürden in der Gesundheitsversorgung – Ein europäischer Überblick.” https://www.wip-pkv.de/fileadmin/DATEN/Dokumente/Studien_in_Buchform/WIP_Zugangshuerden_in_der_Gesundheitsversorgung.pdf
OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 2023. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/21dd4679-en
Stiftung Gesundheitswesen. 2021. “Prävention: Der Mix macht’s.” https://stiftung-gesundheitswissen.de/gesundes-leben/kompetenz-gesundheit/praevention-der-mix-machts
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
In Germany, everyone must participate in a health insurance plan, which means that nearly 100% of the population is insured. This mandate ensures affordable access to healthcare for all individuals, regardless of socioeconomic status, gender, age, ethnicity, and other factors (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
There is a very small percentage of people with unmet needs for medical care, and the difference among income groups is negligible. In the lowest income quintile, 0.3% of households reported unmet healthcare needs, compared with 0.1% in the highest income quintile. Overall, only 0.2% of households mentioned unmet needs for medical care due to cost reasons (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
The statutory health insurances cover a broad range of medical care and treatments, and the benefits are equal for anyone who is insured, regardless of socioeconomic status, gender, age, ethnicity, etc. Persons with high incomes may choose private insurance, which provides benefits that are at least equivalent to those of statutory insurance and often better. Asylum-seekers and recognized refugees are only entitled to emergency, maternity, and preventive care during the first 18 months of their stay. After that, they can access a broader range of healthcare (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
A European Parliament study stated that the German health system provides equal access for both males and females (European Parliament, 2015).
A couple of years ago, the federal government commissioner for people with disabilities (Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für die Belange von Menschen mit Behinderungen), Jürgen Dusel, criticized that many doctors’ practices and their websites are not barrier-free and nursing staffs in hospitals are often not trained to deal with specific disabilities and the special needs of their disabled patients (Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für die Belange von Menschen mit Behinderungen, n.d.). Currently, the federal ministry for health (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit) is working on an action plan to reduce barriers and improve accessibility in the health system (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, 2023).
To evaluate the equal accessibility of medical care across all regions of Germany, it is essential first to examine the differences among the sixteen federal states. In 2015, the number of healthcare professionals in the various federal states ranged from 55 to 75 professionals per 1,000 inhabitants, with the German average at 65. The disparities in healthcare expenses per capita were also minimal, ranging from approximately €4,000 to €4,400, with the German average at €4,213 (Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz, 2017). In 2022, the occupancy of hospital beds in Germany averaged 69%, with a range of 65% to 74% among the federal states (Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes, 2023).
An emerging problem is the shortage of doctors in rural areas. Although there are more doctors than ever since German reunification, they often specialize or are drawn to the cities. In the countryside, however, a general practitioner is needed first. The federal states are trying to counteract this problem, for example, by providing scholarships for students who promise to settle in a rural area when finally becoming a doctor (Deutschlandfunk, 2022).
Citations:
Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für die Belange von Menschen mit Behinderungen. n.d. “Gesundheit – gute Versorgung für alle.” https://www.behindertenbeauftragter.de/DE/AS/schwerpunkte/gesundheit/gesundheit-node.html
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. 2023. “Startschuss: Aktionsplan für ein diverses, inklusives und barrierefreies Gesundheitswesen.” https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/presse/pressemitteilungen/startschuss-aktionsplan-fuer-diverses-inklusives-barrierefreies-gesundheitswesen
Deutschlandfunk. 2022. “Wie Länder und Kommunen Landärzte für sich gewinnen wollen.” https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/landaerzte-verzweifelt-gesucht-100.html
European Parliament. 2015. “The Policy on Gender Equality in Germany.” https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/510025/IPOL_IDA(2015)510025_EN.pdf
Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes. 2023. “Betten in Krankenhäusern.” https://www.gbe-bund.de/gbe/pkg_isgbe5.prc_menu_olap?p_uid=gastd&p_aid=3426115&p_sprache=D&p_help=0&p_indnr=115&p_indsp=5077&p_ityp=H&p_fid
OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 2023. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/21dd4679-en
Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz. 2017. “Vergleich des Gesundheitswesen für alle Bundesländer seit 2017 möglich.” Statistische Monatshefte Rheinland-Pfalz 12/2017. https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2017/Dezember/12-2017-748.pdf
There is a very small percentage of people with unmet needs for medical care, and the difference among income groups is negligible. In the lowest income quintile, 0.3% of households reported unmet healthcare needs, compared with 0.1% in the highest income quintile. Overall, only 0.2% of households mentioned unmet needs for medical care due to cost reasons (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
The statutory health insurances cover a broad range of medical care and treatments, and the benefits are equal for anyone who is insured, regardless of socioeconomic status, gender, age, ethnicity, etc. Persons with high incomes may choose private insurance, which provides benefits that are at least equivalent to those of statutory insurance and often better. Asylum-seekers and recognized refugees are only entitled to emergency, maternity, and preventive care during the first 18 months of their stay. After that, they can access a broader range of healthcare (OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, 2023).
A European Parliament study stated that the German health system provides equal access for both males and females (European Parliament, 2015).
A couple of years ago, the federal government commissioner for people with disabilities (Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für die Belange von Menschen mit Behinderungen), Jürgen Dusel, criticized that many doctors’ practices and their websites are not barrier-free and nursing staffs in hospitals are often not trained to deal with specific disabilities and the special needs of their disabled patients (Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für die Belange von Menschen mit Behinderungen, n.d.). Currently, the federal ministry for health (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit) is working on an action plan to reduce barriers and improve accessibility in the health system (Bundesministerium für Gesundheit, 2023).
To evaluate the equal accessibility of medical care across all regions of Germany, it is essential first to examine the differences among the sixteen federal states. In 2015, the number of healthcare professionals in the various federal states ranged from 55 to 75 professionals per 1,000 inhabitants, with the German average at 65. The disparities in healthcare expenses per capita were also minimal, ranging from approximately €4,000 to €4,400, with the German average at €4,213 (Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz, 2017). In 2022, the occupancy of hospital beds in Germany averaged 69%, with a range of 65% to 74% among the federal states (Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes, 2023).
An emerging problem is the shortage of doctors in rural areas. Although there are more doctors than ever since German reunification, they often specialize or are drawn to the cities. In the countryside, however, a general practitioner is needed first. The federal states are trying to counteract this problem, for example, by providing scholarships for students who promise to settle in a rural area when finally becoming a doctor (Deutschlandfunk, 2022).
Citations:
Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für die Belange von Menschen mit Behinderungen. n.d. “Gesundheit – gute Versorgung für alle.” https://www.behindertenbeauftragter.de/DE/AS/schwerpunkte/gesundheit/gesundheit-node.html
Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. 2023. “Startschuss: Aktionsplan für ein diverses, inklusives und barrierefreies Gesundheitswesen.” https://www.bundesgesundheitsministerium.de/presse/pressemitteilungen/startschuss-aktionsplan-fuer-diverses-inklusives-barrierefreies-gesundheitswesen
Deutschlandfunk. 2022. “Wie Länder und Kommunen Landärzte für sich gewinnen wollen.” https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/landaerzte-verzweifelt-gesucht-100.html
European Parliament. 2015. “The Policy on Gender Equality in Germany.” https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/510025/IPOL_IDA(2015)510025_EN.pdf
Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes. 2023. “Betten in Krankenhäusern.” https://www.gbe-bund.de/gbe/pkg_isgbe5.prc_menu_olap?p_uid=gastd&p_aid=3426115&p_sprache=D&p_help=0&p_indnr=115&p_indsp=5077&p_ityp=H&p_fid
OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies. 2023. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/21dd4679-en
Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz. 2017. “Vergleich des Gesundheitswesen für alle Bundesländer seit 2017 möglich.” Statistische Monatshefte Rheinland-Pfalz 12/2017. https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2017/Dezember/12-2017-748.pdf
Graph View
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
10
9
9
The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
2
1
1
The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
According to the United Nations Development Program’s Gender Equality Index (GII), Germany had a relatively low and thereby favorable score of 0.073 for 2021. A lower score indicates lower inequality on a scale from 0 to 1. The GII measures gender-based inequality across three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market. The dimensions of empowerment and the labor market include women with at least a secondary education, women’s participation in the labor market, and their share of parliamentary seats. For context, Denmark had the lowest score at 0.013, while the world average was 0.465 (UNDP, 2023).
The Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ) is generally responsible for gender equality policies. Equality is a central topic for the ministry, and it is divided into multiple sub-categories, such as equality in the labor market, violence against women, and equality policies for boys and men. Some initiatives result from interdepartmental policy coordination. An example of this is policies on equality in education, for which the BMFSFJ and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) cooperate.
Germany is a party to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). As a control mechanism for the convention, countries must regularly submit reports outlining newly adopted equality and women’s policy measures. Germany’s most recent report, adopted by the federal cabinet in 2021, addressed 80 questions posed by the CEDAW committee (BMFSFJ, 2021a).
As of 2020, Germany has implemented a strategy to ensure gender equality, developed interdepartmentally and published by the BMFSFJ, which formulates nine goals. These goals primarily focus on ensuring equal career opportunities, income, and participation in politics, business, and science. This is achieved, for instance, through the promotion of an equal distribution of paid work and unpaid care work between women and men. Although these goals are based on current key figures, the measures proposed by the strategy do not include specific target values. Nevertheless, the strategy outlines multiple comprehensive key measures in the form of initiatives or policies to achieve the individual goals. Additionally, the strategy identifies an indicator to measure progress for each action, such as data from the Federal Statistical Office (BMFSFJ, 2020).
In line with its strategy, Germany has implemented or planned several policies to support gender equality. The paragraphs below outline a few exemplary policies in relevant areas.
Regarding education, Germany has a gender-equitable school system, and more girls than boys complete school with an upper-secondary education. However, gender stereotypes still need to be addressed to promote career diversification and equal opportunities. In recent years, several initiatives, such as “YouCodeGirls,” “Boy’s Day,” and “Girl’s Day,” were launched, and the BMBF introduced the “National Pact for Women in STEM Professions” to increase the number of women in STEM occupations (BMFSFJ, 2023a).
For the year 2022, 46.7% of the total labor force were women, which is above the global share of 39.5% (World Bank, 2023). However, unequal treatment still becomes apparent in issues such as the gender pay gap. There are policies in place to promote women’s participation and equal treatment in the labor market. For instance, as of 2021, executive boards with more than two members must include at least one woman. Nonetheless, this policy affects only 66 companies, of which 21 do not have women on their executive boards (BMFSFJ, 2021).
While a goal of the 2020 strategy is to promote parity in politics, especially in all parliaments, a corresponding parity act (Paritätsgesetz) in Thuringia was declared null and void by the Thuringian Constitutional Court. The act required that candidate lists for state parliamentary elections be filled alternately by women and men, but it was ruled unconstitutional (Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2021).
Lastly, Germany ratified the Istanbul Convention, the most comprehensive international human rights treaty on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, in 2017. The convention entered into force in 2018 (EIGE, 2023). Based on this convention, the BMFSFJ launched the federal funding program “United against violence against women” (“Gemeinsam gegen Gewalt an Frauen”). The program aims to expand the network of support services, improve access to many nationwide help services, and educate about the various forms of violence (BMFSFJ, 2023a). In November 2023, the Federal Minister for Family Affairs proposed a new violence aid act set to enter into force in the current legislative period. The draft law plans the creation of the legal right to protection and counseling in cases of gender-specific and domestic violence (Zeit, 2023). Additionally, as of November 2023, the federal government is working on a national strategy for protection against violence to implement a measure from the Istanbul Convention (BMFSFJ, 2023b).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2020. “Gleichstellungsstrategie der Bundesregierung.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/158356/b500f2b30b7bac2fc1446d223d0a3e19/gleichstellungsstrategie-der-bundesregierung-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2021. “Neunter Bericht der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zum Übereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen zur Beseitigung jeder Form von Diskriminierung der Frau (CEDAW).” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/181362/684a2a98e6aa2486657e25923d60ca47/neunter-staatenbericht-cedaw-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2021. “Zweites Führungspositionen-Gesetz – FüPoG II.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/service/gesetze/zweites-fuehrungspositionengesetz-fuepog-2-164226
BMFSFJ. 2023a. “Frauen vor Gewalt schützen.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/gleichstellung/frauen-vor-gewalt-schuetzen
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Bundesregierung beginnt Arbeit an Gewaltschutzstrategie.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/aktuelles/alle-meldungen/bundesregierung-beginnt-arbeit-an-gewaltschutzstrategie-232658
Bundesverfassungsgericht. 2021. “Unzulässige Verfassungsbeschwerde gegen Urteil betreffend die Einführung paritätischer Listen bei der Landtagswahl in Thüringen.” Pressemitteilung Nr. 3/2022. https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Pressemitteilungen/DE/2022/bvg22-003.html
EIGE. 2023. “Gender Equality Index, Violence in Germany in 2023 edition.” https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2023/domain/violence/DE
UNDP. 2023. “Gender Inequality Index (GII).” https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indicies/GII
World Bank. 2023. “Labor Force, Female (% of Total Labor Force).” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS
Zeit. 2023. “Lisa Paus fordert mehr Schutz für Frauen.” https://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/2023-11/gewalt-frauen-lisa-paus-frauenrat
The Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ) is generally responsible for gender equality policies. Equality is a central topic for the ministry, and it is divided into multiple sub-categories, such as equality in the labor market, violence against women, and equality policies for boys and men. Some initiatives result from interdepartmental policy coordination. An example of this is policies on equality in education, for which the BMFSFJ and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) cooperate.
Germany is a party to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). As a control mechanism for the convention, countries must regularly submit reports outlining newly adopted equality and women’s policy measures. Germany’s most recent report, adopted by the federal cabinet in 2021, addressed 80 questions posed by the CEDAW committee (BMFSFJ, 2021a).
As of 2020, Germany has implemented a strategy to ensure gender equality, developed interdepartmentally and published by the BMFSFJ, which formulates nine goals. These goals primarily focus on ensuring equal career opportunities, income, and participation in politics, business, and science. This is achieved, for instance, through the promotion of an equal distribution of paid work and unpaid care work between women and men. Although these goals are based on current key figures, the measures proposed by the strategy do not include specific target values. Nevertheless, the strategy outlines multiple comprehensive key measures in the form of initiatives or policies to achieve the individual goals. Additionally, the strategy identifies an indicator to measure progress for each action, such as data from the Federal Statistical Office (BMFSFJ, 2020).
In line with its strategy, Germany has implemented or planned several policies to support gender equality. The paragraphs below outline a few exemplary policies in relevant areas.
Regarding education, Germany has a gender-equitable school system, and more girls than boys complete school with an upper-secondary education. However, gender stereotypes still need to be addressed to promote career diversification and equal opportunities. In recent years, several initiatives, such as “YouCodeGirls,” “Boy’s Day,” and “Girl’s Day,” were launched, and the BMBF introduced the “National Pact for Women in STEM Professions” to increase the number of women in STEM occupations (BMFSFJ, 2023a).
For the year 2022, 46.7% of the total labor force were women, which is above the global share of 39.5% (World Bank, 2023). However, unequal treatment still becomes apparent in issues such as the gender pay gap. There are policies in place to promote women’s participation and equal treatment in the labor market. For instance, as of 2021, executive boards with more than two members must include at least one woman. Nonetheless, this policy affects only 66 companies, of which 21 do not have women on their executive boards (BMFSFJ, 2021).
While a goal of the 2020 strategy is to promote parity in politics, especially in all parliaments, a corresponding parity act (Paritätsgesetz) in Thuringia was declared null and void by the Thuringian Constitutional Court. The act required that candidate lists for state parliamentary elections be filled alternately by women and men, but it was ruled unconstitutional (Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2021).
Lastly, Germany ratified the Istanbul Convention, the most comprehensive international human rights treaty on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, in 2017. The convention entered into force in 2018 (EIGE, 2023). Based on this convention, the BMFSFJ launched the federal funding program “United against violence against women” (“Gemeinsam gegen Gewalt an Frauen”). The program aims to expand the network of support services, improve access to many nationwide help services, and educate about the various forms of violence (BMFSFJ, 2023a). In November 2023, the Federal Minister for Family Affairs proposed a new violence aid act set to enter into force in the current legislative period. The draft law plans the creation of the legal right to protection and counseling in cases of gender-specific and domestic violence (Zeit, 2023). Additionally, as of November 2023, the federal government is working on a national strategy for protection against violence to implement a measure from the Istanbul Convention (BMFSFJ, 2023b).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2020. “Gleichstellungsstrategie der Bundesregierung.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/158356/b500f2b30b7bac2fc1446d223d0a3e19/gleichstellungsstrategie-der-bundesregierung-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2021. “Neunter Bericht der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zum Übereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen zur Beseitigung jeder Form von Diskriminierung der Frau (CEDAW).” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/181362/684a2a98e6aa2486657e25923d60ca47/neunter-staatenbericht-cedaw-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2021. “Zweites Führungspositionen-Gesetz – FüPoG II.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/service/gesetze/zweites-fuehrungspositionengesetz-fuepog-2-164226
BMFSFJ. 2023a. “Frauen vor Gewalt schützen.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/gleichstellung/frauen-vor-gewalt-schuetzen
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Bundesregierung beginnt Arbeit an Gewaltschutzstrategie.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/aktuelles/alle-meldungen/bundesregierung-beginnt-arbeit-an-gewaltschutzstrategie-232658
Bundesverfassungsgericht. 2021. “Unzulässige Verfassungsbeschwerde gegen Urteil betreffend die Einführung paritätischer Listen bei der Landtagswahl in Thüringen.” Pressemitteilung Nr. 3/2022. https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Pressemitteilungen/DE/2022/bvg22-003.html
EIGE. 2023. “Gender Equality Index, Violence in Germany in 2023 edition.” https://eige.europa.eu/gender-equality-index/2023/domain/violence/DE
UNDP. 2023. “Gender Inequality Index (GII).” https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indicies/GII
World Bank. 2023. “Labor Force, Female (% of Total Labor Force).” https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.FE.ZS
Zeit. 2023. “Lisa Paus fordert mehr Schutz für Frauen.” https://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/2023-11/gewalt-frauen-lisa-paus-frauenrat
Graph View
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
10
9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
8
7
6
7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
4
3
4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
According to International Labor Organization (ILO) standards, maternity leave with a duration of at least 18 weeks, but no less than 14 weeks, is recommended. While it is also suggested that the cash benefits during maternity leave should represent the full amount of the income received before the leave, benefits received should not be less than two-thirds of that income (WHO, 2023).
Germany’s maternity leave system follows the Maternity Protection Act (Mutterschutzgesetz). The act pertains to all pregnant and breastfeeding women in an employment relationship and includes regulations for health and safety at the workplace, protection from dismissal, and benefits before and after childbirth. Regarding job protection, women have the right to be employed under the terms of the contract existing before the pregnancy. Employers are prohibited from terminating an employment contract from the beginning of a pregnancy until at least four months after childbirth. In the case of parental leave, the protection from dismissal is extended until the end of the registered parental leave. Additionally, employers are banned from preparing measures for a dismissal once the protection period is over.
The protection periods before and after childbirth are six weeks before and eight weeks after delivery, ensuring Germany meets the minimum ILO requirement for maternity leave duration. In cases of premature birth, multiple birth, or if the child has been diagnosed with a disability, the leave after delivery can be extended to 12 weeks. During that period, women on maternity leave are entitled to maternity benefits replacing the full pay received before the pregnancy (BMFSFJ, 2020).
Maternity leave in Germany lasts 14 weeks, which places the country below the OECD average of 18.5 weeks and the EU average of 21.1 weeks in 2022 (OECD, 2023).
In addition to maternity leave, both men and women are entitled to request parental leave from their employer. Parental leave is regulated under the Federal Parental Allowance and Parental Leave Act (Bundeselterngeld- und Elternzeitgesetz) and can be taken for up to three years (BMFSFJ, 2020). Parental allowance is paid by the government and is divided into three different types: the Basic Parental Allowance, Parental Allowance Plus, and the Partnership Bonus.
The Basic Parental Allowance can be paid for up to 12 months and generally consists of 65% of the net income before the child’s birth, up to a maximum of €1,800 per month. Low-income households can receive 100%. Households with very high incomes (€300,000 joint income) are not eligible. If both parents take parental leave, this period can be extended to 14 months to encourage sharing family and household responsibilities.
Parental Allowance Plus, on the other hand, is available to parents who work part-time during parental leave (up to 32 hours per week) and is paid for twice as long as the Basic Parental Allowance. However, the benefit is only half of that of the Basic Parental Allowance. Lastly, parents who work part-time can also apply for the Partnership Bonus, which is paid for up to five months (BMFSFJ, 2023a).
Taking parental leave into account, Germany has an average total paid leave of 58 weeks, which is above the OECD average of 50.8 weeks but below the EU average of 64.6 weeks (OECD, 2023). While the parental leave policies enable both parents to take parental leave to promote shared responsibilities, in 2022, only 3% of fathers compared to 45.2% of mothers with children below three years were on parental leave (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2024).
According to Article 45 of Book Five of the German Social Code, people with statutory health insurance are entitled to 10 days of sick pay per child if a child under the age of twelve falls ill. Additionally, as of December 2023, parents can receive sick leave by telephone if their child falls ill and care is necessary.
Moreover, the Caregiver Leave Act (Familienpflegezeitgesetz) allows employees up to six months in caregiver leave, with a complete or partial release from work. This release from work is available for close adult relatives in need of long-term care, as well as close relatives who are minors. A partial release from work is possible for up to 24 months. To compensate for income losses, caregivers can apply for interest-free advances with the Federal Office for Family and Civil-Social Duties (BMFSFJ, 2019).
As of January 2023, Germany has enacted the KiTa-Qualitätsgesetz, focusing on the further development of quality and the improvement of participation in child daycare. The act aims to create equal living conditions for children, with the federal government planning to invest €4 billion in 2023 and 2024 (BMFSFJ, 2023b).
As described in the indicators addressing a sustainable education system, children aged one to three, as well as three to the beginning of primary school, have a legal claim to early childhood care based on Article 24 of Book 8 of the German Social Code – Child and Youth Services. However, childcare is not free throughout Germany. While certain states, such as Berlin or Hesse, offer some exemptions from charges for daycare, fees must be paid in other states (Deutsches Jugendinstitut, 2018).
In 2017, average costs for children below the age of three were €1,710, while parents paid €1,630 on average for children between the ages of three and five (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2021). The overall attendance rate in Germany is 36.4% for children under 3, while 90.9% of children attend daycare from the ages of three to six (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2023).
A more detailed description of attendance is outlined under “Policies Targeting Equitable Access to Education,” which shows that, despite not all children having access to childcare, the German average is still above the OECD average.
Financial support for children in Germany to assist families mainly consists of the child benefit (Kindergeld) and the supplementary child allowance (Kinderzuschlag). Parents who are subject to income tax without restriction and live in Germany receive a monthly sum of €250 per child. Generally, the child benefit is paid until the age of 18, or 25 if the child is completing vocational training or a course of study (BMFSFJ, 2023c).
In addition to the child benefit, employed parents can receive supplementary child allowance if their income is insufficient for the whole family. This supplementary allowance includes a monthly benefit of €292 as of January 2024 and offers additional benefits such as coverage for school trips, €195 for school supplies per school year, or a monthly charge for social or cultural activities up to €15 (BMFSFJ, 2023d).
In 2020, expenditure on family-children benefits amounted to 3.7% of GDP, which was above the EU average of 2.5% of GDP (Eurostat, 2023).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2019. “Better Reconciliation of Family, Care and Work.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/93366/d49d4b8cdb3824e28c89cac6473145dc/bessere-vereinbarkeit-von-familie-pflege-und-beruf-flyer-englisch-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2020. “Guide to Maternity Protection.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/191576/beddabe131e1d1c8e67c55b2c44b73f7/leitfaden-zum-mutterschutz-englisch-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Elterngeld.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/familienleistungen/elterngeld/elterngeld-73752
BMFSFJ. 2023b. “Mehr Qualität in der frühen Bildung.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/kinderbetreuung/mehr-qualitaet-in-der-fruehen-bildung/mehr-qualitaet-in-der-fruehen-bildung-133712
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Kindergeld.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/familienleistungen/kindergeld/kindergeld-73892
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Kinderzuschlag und Leistungen für Bildung und Teilhabe.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/familienleistungen/kinderzuschlag-und-leistungen-fuer-bildung-und-teilhabe-73906
Deutsches Jugendinstitut. 2018. “Gebührenfreie Kitas verstärken ungleiche Belastung von Familien.” https://www.dji.de/themen/kinderbetreuung/gebuehrenfreie-kitas-verstaerken-ungleiche-belastung-von-familien.html
Eurostat. 2023. “Social protection statistics – family and children benefits.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Social_protection_statistics_-_family_and_children_benefits
OECD. 2023. “PF2.1. Parental leave systems.” https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF2_1_Parental_leave_systems.pdf?_ga=2.230565407.202068049.1704633135-1424590795.1700750548
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2021. “Kinderbetreuung: Eltern bezahlen im Schnitt 1 310 Euro pro Jahr.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/10/PD21_483_73.html.
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2023. “Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2024. “Elternzeit.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Arbeit/Arbeitsmarkt/Qualitaet-Arbeit/Dimension-3/elternzeit.html
WHO. 2023. “Maternity Protection: Compliance with International Labour Standards.” https://www.who.int/data/nutrition/nlis/info/maternity-protection-compliance-with-international-labour-standards
Germany’s maternity leave system follows the Maternity Protection Act (Mutterschutzgesetz). The act pertains to all pregnant and breastfeeding women in an employment relationship and includes regulations for health and safety at the workplace, protection from dismissal, and benefits before and after childbirth. Regarding job protection, women have the right to be employed under the terms of the contract existing before the pregnancy. Employers are prohibited from terminating an employment contract from the beginning of a pregnancy until at least four months after childbirth. In the case of parental leave, the protection from dismissal is extended until the end of the registered parental leave. Additionally, employers are banned from preparing measures for a dismissal once the protection period is over.
The protection periods before and after childbirth are six weeks before and eight weeks after delivery, ensuring Germany meets the minimum ILO requirement for maternity leave duration. In cases of premature birth, multiple birth, or if the child has been diagnosed with a disability, the leave after delivery can be extended to 12 weeks. During that period, women on maternity leave are entitled to maternity benefits replacing the full pay received before the pregnancy (BMFSFJ, 2020).
Maternity leave in Germany lasts 14 weeks, which places the country below the OECD average of 18.5 weeks and the EU average of 21.1 weeks in 2022 (OECD, 2023).
In addition to maternity leave, both men and women are entitled to request parental leave from their employer. Parental leave is regulated under the Federal Parental Allowance and Parental Leave Act (Bundeselterngeld- und Elternzeitgesetz) and can be taken for up to three years (BMFSFJ, 2020). Parental allowance is paid by the government and is divided into three different types: the Basic Parental Allowance, Parental Allowance Plus, and the Partnership Bonus.
The Basic Parental Allowance can be paid for up to 12 months and generally consists of 65% of the net income before the child’s birth, up to a maximum of €1,800 per month. Low-income households can receive 100%. Households with very high incomes (€300,000 joint income) are not eligible. If both parents take parental leave, this period can be extended to 14 months to encourage sharing family and household responsibilities.
Parental Allowance Plus, on the other hand, is available to parents who work part-time during parental leave (up to 32 hours per week) and is paid for twice as long as the Basic Parental Allowance. However, the benefit is only half of that of the Basic Parental Allowance. Lastly, parents who work part-time can also apply for the Partnership Bonus, which is paid for up to five months (BMFSFJ, 2023a).
Taking parental leave into account, Germany has an average total paid leave of 58 weeks, which is above the OECD average of 50.8 weeks but below the EU average of 64.6 weeks (OECD, 2023). While the parental leave policies enable both parents to take parental leave to promote shared responsibilities, in 2022, only 3% of fathers compared to 45.2% of mothers with children below three years were on parental leave (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2024).
According to Article 45 of Book Five of the German Social Code, people with statutory health insurance are entitled to 10 days of sick pay per child if a child under the age of twelve falls ill. Additionally, as of December 2023, parents can receive sick leave by telephone if their child falls ill and care is necessary.
Moreover, the Caregiver Leave Act (Familienpflegezeitgesetz) allows employees up to six months in caregiver leave, with a complete or partial release from work. This release from work is available for close adult relatives in need of long-term care, as well as close relatives who are minors. A partial release from work is possible for up to 24 months. To compensate for income losses, caregivers can apply for interest-free advances with the Federal Office for Family and Civil-Social Duties (BMFSFJ, 2019).
As of January 2023, Germany has enacted the KiTa-Qualitätsgesetz, focusing on the further development of quality and the improvement of participation in child daycare. The act aims to create equal living conditions for children, with the federal government planning to invest €4 billion in 2023 and 2024 (BMFSFJ, 2023b).
As described in the indicators addressing a sustainable education system, children aged one to three, as well as three to the beginning of primary school, have a legal claim to early childhood care based on Article 24 of Book 8 of the German Social Code – Child and Youth Services. However, childcare is not free throughout Germany. While certain states, such as Berlin or Hesse, offer some exemptions from charges for daycare, fees must be paid in other states (Deutsches Jugendinstitut, 2018).
In 2017, average costs for children below the age of three were €1,710, while parents paid €1,630 on average for children between the ages of three and five (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2021). The overall attendance rate in Germany is 36.4% for children under 3, while 90.9% of children attend daycare from the ages of three to six (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2023).
A more detailed description of attendance is outlined under “Policies Targeting Equitable Access to Education,” which shows that, despite not all children having access to childcare, the German average is still above the OECD average.
Financial support for children in Germany to assist families mainly consists of the child benefit (Kindergeld) and the supplementary child allowance (Kinderzuschlag). Parents who are subject to income tax without restriction and live in Germany receive a monthly sum of €250 per child. Generally, the child benefit is paid until the age of 18, or 25 if the child is completing vocational training or a course of study (BMFSFJ, 2023c).
In addition to the child benefit, employed parents can receive supplementary child allowance if their income is insufficient for the whole family. This supplementary allowance includes a monthly benefit of €292 as of January 2024 and offers additional benefits such as coverage for school trips, €195 for school supplies per school year, or a monthly charge for social or cultural activities up to €15 (BMFSFJ, 2023d).
In 2020, expenditure on family-children benefits amounted to 3.7% of GDP, which was above the EU average of 2.5% of GDP (Eurostat, 2023).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2019. “Better Reconciliation of Family, Care and Work.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/93366/d49d4b8cdb3824e28c89cac6473145dc/bessere-vereinbarkeit-von-familie-pflege-und-beruf-flyer-englisch-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2020. “Guide to Maternity Protection.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/resource/blob/191576/beddabe131e1d1c8e67c55b2c44b73f7/leitfaden-zum-mutterschutz-englisch-data.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Elterngeld.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/familienleistungen/elterngeld/elterngeld-73752
BMFSFJ. 2023b. “Mehr Qualität in der frühen Bildung.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/kinderbetreuung/mehr-qualitaet-in-der-fruehen-bildung/mehr-qualitaet-in-der-fruehen-bildung-133712
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Kindergeld.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/familienleistungen/kindergeld/kindergeld-73892
BMFSFJ. 2023. “Kinderzuschlag und Leistungen für Bildung und Teilhabe.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/themen/familie/familienleistungen/kinderzuschlag-und-leistungen-fuer-bildung-und-teilhabe-73906
Deutsches Jugendinstitut. 2018. “Gebührenfreie Kitas verstärken ungleiche Belastung von Familien.” https://www.dji.de/themen/kinderbetreuung/gebuehrenfreie-kitas-verstaerken-ungleiche-belastung-von-familien.html
Eurostat. 2023. “Social protection statistics – family and children benefits.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Social_protection_statistics_-_family_and_children_benefits
OECD. 2023. “PF2.1. Parental leave systems.” https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF2_1_Parental_leave_systems.pdf?_ga=2.230565407.202068049.1704633135-1424590795.1700750548
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2021. “Kinderbetreuung: Eltern bezahlen im Schnitt 1 310 Euro pro Jahr.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2021/10/PD21_483_73.html.
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2023. “Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2024. “Elternzeit.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Arbeit/Arbeitsmarkt/Qualitaet-Arbeit/Dimension-3/elternzeit.html
WHO. 2023. “Maternity Protection: Compliance with International Labour Standards.” https://www.who.int/data/nutrition/nlis/info/maternity-protection-compliance-with-international-labour-standards
Graph View
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
Every employee in Germany is automatically part of the statutory pension insurance. The amount of payments that pensioners receive is based on the income they earned over the span of their working years. The statutory pension insurance can be combined with private or company plans. The use of private insurance is partially aided by the government (“Riester-Rente”) (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, 2017).
Pensions are lower for individuals with shorter or non-continuous employment histories due to the strong link between contributions and pension payments. However, the pension system offers several measures to prevent poverty in old age for those who experience interruptions in their work histories. For instance, periods of unemployment due to illness, caring for family members, and child-rearing are, under certain conditions, treated similarly to regular employment. These periods then count toward the pension system, thereby increasing pension incomes (Bundesregierung, 2023: 4).
For child-rearing, each child is granted an additional pension amount equivalent to the average contribution payment over three years (two and a half years if the child was born before 1992) (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.A). Parents can also earn extra pension claims beyond the three years covered if they have low incomes during the first ten years of a child’s life, such as by working part-time to have more time for child-rearing. In this case, the income used for pension calculation is 50% higher than the actual income, without requiring higher contributions (Deutsche Rentenversicherung Oldenburg-Bremen, 2018).
When an individual cares for a family member, friend, or neighbor requiring high-maintenance care and, as a result, works less than full-time, the compulsory long-term care insurance, under specific circumstances, pays additional pension contributions (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.B).
Self-employed individuals are not automatically part of the statutory pension system, although they may apply for membership. There are plans to make the statutory pension system compulsory for the self-employed as well (Bundesregierung 2023: 4).
The average net income of a single pensioner per month is approximately €1,700 in West Germany and approximately €1,550 in the eastern part of the country. This is more than three times higher than the Bürgergeld, the German long-term unemployment benefit (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, 2023a, p. 22). In 2020, expenditures on pensions amounted to 12.6% of Germany’s gross domestic product, which is slightly lower than the EU average of 13.6% (Eurostat, 2023).
However, employees in non-standard employment, low-paying jobs, or with interrupted employment histories may face much lower pensions than the average. If the pension is insufficient to ensure a dignified life, there are several additional aids available for senior citizens. The base pension (Grundrente) provides supplemental income on top of the normal pension for seniors who have worked for a long time in underpaid jobs and are therefore not eligible for a higher pension. Seniors with low incomes may also benefit from “Wohngeld,” a government-funded aid for low-income households struggling to pay their rent (Bundesregierung, 2023, p. 4).
The guaranteed minimum pension for seniors (Grundsicherung im Alter) is a safety net for people above the statutory retirement age whose pension incomes are too low to cover basic subsistence needs. It is designed to ensure that every senior can live in dignity, much like the Bürgergeld, the German long-term unemployment benefit, does for working-age individuals. The guaranteed minimum pension for seniors is thus a social welfare benefit and is not linked to statutory pension insurance (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, 2023b).
Citations:
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. 2017. “Gesetzliche Rentenversicherung.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Soziales/Rente-und-Altersvorsorge/Gesetzliche-Rentenversicherung/gesetzliche-rentenversicherung-art.html
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. 2023. “Rentenversicherungsbericht 2023.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/bundeskabinett-beschliesst-rentenversicherungsbericht-2023.html
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. 2023b. “Grundsicherung im Alter.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Soziales/Rente-und-Altersvorsorge/Fakten-zur-Rente/Grundsicherung-im-Alter/grundsicherung-im-alter.html
Bundesregierung. 2023. “Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Gerrit Huy, René Springer, Ulrike Schielke-Ziesing, Norbert Kleinwächter und der Fraktion der AfD: Deutsche Altersarmut und Armutsgefährdung im europäischen Vergleich.” Drucksache 20/6064.
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d.A. “Kindererziehung: Ihr Plus für die Rente.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Familie-und-Kinder/Kindererziehung/kindererziehung_node.html
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d. “Pflege von Angehörigen lohnt sich auch für die Rente.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Familie-und-Kinder/Angehoerige-pflegen/angehoerige-pflegen_node.html
Deutsche Rentenversicherung Oldenburg-Bremen. 2018. “Kinderberücksichtigungszeiten.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/OldenburgBremen/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/Rententipps/rententipp_monat_2018_11.html
Eurostat. 2023. “Social protection statistics – pension expenditure and pension beneficiaries.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Social_protection_statistics_-_pension_expenditure_and_pension_beneficiaries
Pensions are lower for individuals with shorter or non-continuous employment histories due to the strong link between contributions and pension payments. However, the pension system offers several measures to prevent poverty in old age for those who experience interruptions in their work histories. For instance, periods of unemployment due to illness, caring for family members, and child-rearing are, under certain conditions, treated similarly to regular employment. These periods then count toward the pension system, thereby increasing pension incomes (Bundesregierung, 2023: 4).
For child-rearing, each child is granted an additional pension amount equivalent to the average contribution payment over three years (two and a half years if the child was born before 1992) (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.A). Parents can also earn extra pension claims beyond the three years covered if they have low incomes during the first ten years of a child’s life, such as by working part-time to have more time for child-rearing. In this case, the income used for pension calculation is 50% higher than the actual income, without requiring higher contributions (Deutsche Rentenversicherung Oldenburg-Bremen, 2018).
When an individual cares for a family member, friend, or neighbor requiring high-maintenance care and, as a result, works less than full-time, the compulsory long-term care insurance, under specific circumstances, pays additional pension contributions (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.B).
Self-employed individuals are not automatically part of the statutory pension system, although they may apply for membership. There are plans to make the statutory pension system compulsory for the self-employed as well (Bundesregierung 2023: 4).
The average net income of a single pensioner per month is approximately €1,700 in West Germany and approximately €1,550 in the eastern part of the country. This is more than three times higher than the Bürgergeld, the German long-term unemployment benefit (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, 2023a, p. 22). In 2020, expenditures on pensions amounted to 12.6% of Germany’s gross domestic product, which is slightly lower than the EU average of 13.6% (Eurostat, 2023).
However, employees in non-standard employment, low-paying jobs, or with interrupted employment histories may face much lower pensions than the average. If the pension is insufficient to ensure a dignified life, there are several additional aids available for senior citizens. The base pension (Grundrente) provides supplemental income on top of the normal pension for seniors who have worked for a long time in underpaid jobs and are therefore not eligible for a higher pension. Seniors with low incomes may also benefit from “Wohngeld,” a government-funded aid for low-income households struggling to pay their rent (Bundesregierung, 2023, p. 4).
The guaranteed minimum pension for seniors (Grundsicherung im Alter) is a safety net for people above the statutory retirement age whose pension incomes are too low to cover basic subsistence needs. It is designed to ensure that every senior can live in dignity, much like the Bürgergeld, the German long-term unemployment benefit, does for working-age individuals. The guaranteed minimum pension for seniors is thus a social welfare benefit and is not linked to statutory pension insurance (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, 2023b).
Citations:
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. 2017. “Gesetzliche Rentenversicherung.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Soziales/Rente-und-Altersvorsorge/Gesetzliche-Rentenversicherung/gesetzliche-rentenversicherung-art.html
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. 2023. “Rentenversicherungsbericht 2023.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/bundeskabinett-beschliesst-rentenversicherungsbericht-2023.html
Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales. 2023b. “Grundsicherung im Alter.” https://www.bmas.de/DE/Soziales/Rente-und-Altersvorsorge/Fakten-zur-Rente/Grundsicherung-im-Alter/grundsicherung-im-alter.html
Bundesregierung. 2023. “Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Gerrit Huy, René Springer, Ulrike Schielke-Ziesing, Norbert Kleinwächter und der Fraktion der AfD: Deutsche Altersarmut und Armutsgefährdung im europäischen Vergleich.” Drucksache 20/6064.
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d.A. “Kindererziehung: Ihr Plus für die Rente.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Familie-und-Kinder/Kindererziehung/kindererziehung_node.html
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d. “Pflege von Angehörigen lohnt sich auch für die Rente.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Familie-und-Kinder/Angehoerige-pflegen/angehoerige-pflegen_node.html
Deutsche Rentenversicherung Oldenburg-Bremen. 2018. “Kinderberücksichtigungszeiten.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/OldenburgBremen/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/Rententipps/rententipp_monat_2018_11.html
Eurostat. 2023. “Social protection statistics – pension expenditure and pension beneficiaries.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Social_protection_statistics_-_pension_expenditure_and_pension_beneficiaries
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
The statutory retirement age in Germany is 67, but individuals have the option to retire earlier or later. Most people can retire as early as age 63, although this results in reduced pensions for the rest of their lives (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.A). Conversely, it is possible to work beyond the usual retirement age, with each additional month of work increasing the monthly pension payments by 0.5%. Seniors can draw their pension while still working (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.B). Continuing to work after early retirement is also an option, with job income not limiting or reducing pension payments (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, 2023: 4).
Additionally, the statutory pension insurance covers individuals who are not old enough to retire but are unable to work due to health reasons or can only work a limited number of hours. If the insured person is determined to be able to work a few hours per week, they are required to do so and receive reduced pension payments while also earning job income. Eligibility requires that the person has been insured for at least five years, with contributions paid for at least three of those years (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.C).
The German statutory pension insurance is financed by contributions from employers and employees, along with government grants. In 2020, receipts consisted of approximately €250 billion in contributions and about €75 billion in grants. The underlying principle is a pay-as-you-go system, meaning that each year’s revenue covers that same year’s expenditures. Without the government grants, the insurance would incur losses annually (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2022). The imbalance between contributions and payments is expected to grow in the coming decades due to the retirement of the baby boomer generation and increased life expectancies (Deutschlandfunk, 2022).
The statutory pension insurance can be supplemented with private or company plans. The use of private insurance has been subsidized by the government since 2002 under the “Riester-Rente” scheme, which was made more generous in 2018. The goal is to reduce Germany’s reliance on the pay-as-you-go pension system. Slightly fewer than 10.5 million people participated in the program in 2020, costing the government around €4 billion (BMF, 2023).
The German Council of Economic Experts (Sachverständigenrat, SVR) calls for a reform of the German pension system to stabilize funding and address demographic changes. Without reform, there is a risk of lower pensions, leading to a higher risk of poverty among seniors, combined with higher future contributions (Sachverständigenrat, 2023). Proposed solutions to address the demographic challenge include raising the retirement age, increasing contributions, reducing pension payments, or providing additional government grants (Deutschlandfunk, 2022).
Furthermore, a public pension fund is planned, with financial resources to be invested in assets, generating revenue to address the pension insurance’s future financing problems. However, it is still unclear where the money for the fund will come from and how much relief the fund and its revenue can provide (Deutschlandfunk, 2023).
Citations:
BMF (Federal Ministry of Finance). 2023. “Statistische Auswertungen zur Riester-Förderung.” https://www.bundesfinanzministerium.de/Content/DE/Standardartikel/Themen/Steuern/Steuerliche_Themengebiete/Altersvorsorge/2023-11-15-Statistische-Auswertungen-Riester-Foerderung-bis-2022.html
Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. 2022. “Einnahmen und Ausgaben der gesetzlichen Rentenversicherung (GRV).” https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/zahlen-und-fakten/soziale-situation-in-deutschland/61857/einnahmen-und-ausgaben-der-gesetzlichen-rentenversicherung-grv/
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. 2023. “Altersrente. Unbegrenzt hinzuverdienen.” 34. Auflage [7/2023], Nr. 206.
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d.A. “Altersrenten für langjährig und besonders langjährig Versicherte.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Allgemeine-Informationen/Rentenarten-und-Leistungen/Altersrente-fuer-langjaehrig-Versicherte/altersrente-fuer-langjaehrig-versicherte_node.html
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. “Zahlt sich aus: Arbeiten über die Rentenaltersgrenze hinaus.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Allgemeine-Informationen/Wissenswertes-zur-Rente/FAQs/Gesetzesaenderungen/Flexirente/Flexirente_Regelaltersgrenze.html#d57d5c7c-e685-4db9-ae58-7b199086b245
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d. “Erwerbsminderungsrenten.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Allgemeine-Informationen/Rentenarten-und-Leistungen/Erwerbsminderungsrente/erwerbsminderungsrente_node.html
Deutschlandfunk. 2022. “Wie können die Renten finanzierbar bleiben?” https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/reform-der-altersvorsorge-rente-deutschland-100.html
Deutschlandfunk. 2023. “Wie Christian Lindner mit Aktien die Rente sichern will.” https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/-rente-altersvorsorge-aktienrente-christian-lindner-fdp-risiken-kritik-100.html
Sachverständigenrat. 2023. “Kein Weiter so bei der Rente: Eine Kombination mehrerer Reformmaßnahmen ist unverzichtbar.” https://www.sachverstaendigenrat-wirtschaft.de/jahresgutachten-2023-pressemitteilung/kapitel-5.html
Additionally, the statutory pension insurance covers individuals who are not old enough to retire but are unable to work due to health reasons or can only work a limited number of hours. If the insured person is determined to be able to work a few hours per week, they are required to do so and receive reduced pension payments while also earning job income. Eligibility requires that the person has been insured for at least five years, with contributions paid for at least three of those years (Deutsche Rentenversicherung, n.d.C).
The German statutory pension insurance is financed by contributions from employers and employees, along with government grants. In 2020, receipts consisted of approximately €250 billion in contributions and about €75 billion in grants. The underlying principle is a pay-as-you-go system, meaning that each year’s revenue covers that same year’s expenditures. Without the government grants, the insurance would incur losses annually (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2022). The imbalance between contributions and payments is expected to grow in the coming decades due to the retirement of the baby boomer generation and increased life expectancies (Deutschlandfunk, 2022).
The statutory pension insurance can be supplemented with private or company plans. The use of private insurance has been subsidized by the government since 2002 under the “Riester-Rente” scheme, which was made more generous in 2018. The goal is to reduce Germany’s reliance on the pay-as-you-go pension system. Slightly fewer than 10.5 million people participated in the program in 2020, costing the government around €4 billion (BMF, 2023).
The German Council of Economic Experts (Sachverständigenrat, SVR) calls for a reform of the German pension system to stabilize funding and address demographic changes. Without reform, there is a risk of lower pensions, leading to a higher risk of poverty among seniors, combined with higher future contributions (Sachverständigenrat, 2023). Proposed solutions to address the demographic challenge include raising the retirement age, increasing contributions, reducing pension payments, or providing additional government grants (Deutschlandfunk, 2022).
Furthermore, a public pension fund is planned, with financial resources to be invested in assets, generating revenue to address the pension insurance’s future financing problems. However, it is still unclear where the money for the fund will come from and how much relief the fund and its revenue can provide (Deutschlandfunk, 2023).
Citations:
BMF (Federal Ministry of Finance). 2023. “Statistische Auswertungen zur Riester-Förderung.” https://www.bundesfinanzministerium.de/Content/DE/Standardartikel/Themen/Steuern/Steuerliche_Themengebiete/Altersvorsorge/2023-11-15-Statistische-Auswertungen-Riester-Foerderung-bis-2022.html
Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. 2022. “Einnahmen und Ausgaben der gesetzlichen Rentenversicherung (GRV).” https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/zahlen-und-fakten/soziale-situation-in-deutschland/61857/einnahmen-und-ausgaben-der-gesetzlichen-rentenversicherung-grv/
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. 2023. “Altersrente. Unbegrenzt hinzuverdienen.” 34. Auflage [7/2023], Nr. 206.
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d.A. “Altersrenten für langjährig und besonders langjährig Versicherte.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Allgemeine-Informationen/Rentenarten-und-Leistungen/Altersrente-fuer-langjaehrig-Versicherte/altersrente-fuer-langjaehrig-versicherte_node.html
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. “Zahlt sich aus: Arbeiten über die Rentenaltersgrenze hinaus.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Allgemeine-Informationen/Wissenswertes-zur-Rente/FAQs/Gesetzesaenderungen/Flexirente/Flexirente_Regelaltersgrenze.html#d57d5c7c-e685-4db9-ae58-7b199086b245
Deutsche Rentenversicherung. n.d. “Erwerbsminderungsrenten.” https://www.deutsche-rentenversicherung.de/DRV/DE/Rente/Allgemeine-Informationen/Rentenarten-und-Leistungen/Erwerbsminderungsrente/erwerbsminderungsrente_node.html
Deutschlandfunk. 2022. “Wie können die Renten finanzierbar bleiben?” https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/reform-der-altersvorsorge-rente-deutschland-100.html
Deutschlandfunk. 2023. “Wie Christian Lindner mit Aktien die Rente sichern will.” https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/-rente-altersvorsorge-aktienrente-christian-lindner-fdp-risiken-kritik-100.html
Sachverständigenrat. 2023. “Kein Weiter so bei der Rente: Eine Kombination mehrerer Reformmaßnahmen ist unverzichtbar.” https://www.sachverstaendigenrat-wirtschaft.de/jahresgutachten-2023-pressemitteilung/kapitel-5.html
Graph View
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
10
9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Regarding labor market mobility for migrants, the Migration Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) rated Germany with a value of 81 for 2019, ranking the country fifth out of 56. Thus, the MIPEX considers Germany’s labor market policies favorable for promoting equal-quality employment over the long term. This means the index recognizes Germany for promoting equal rights, opportunities to access jobs, and the improvement of skills (MIPEX, 2020).
Germany’s migration regulations must be divided into those for EU member states and those for non-EU countries. Since EU citizens enjoy freedom of movement, they are not subject to any restrictions when working in Germany (The Federal Government, 2019). Therefore, the following policies and regulations concern immigrants from non-EU member states only.
Germany is among the countries with the lowest restrictions on the immigration of skilled workers. The Immigration Act for Skilled Workers (Fachkräfteeinwanderungsgesetz) provides the legal framework, defining skilled workers as individuals with a university degree or qualified vocational training of at least two years. Migrants with vocational training can obtain residence and work permits, allowing them to work in any profession they are qualified for, provided they have an employment contract and a salary equivalent to that of a German employee.
Skilled workers with a university degree can receive an EU Blue Card. Applicants must provide a university degree comparable to a German university degree and have a binding employment contract with a gross annual salary of at least €58,400 as of 2023. For occupations experiencing a shortage of employees, such as doctors, this minimum salary decreases to €45,552 per year (BMI, 2023).
The previously outlined favorable MIPEX score for Germany’s labor market mobility policies is largely due to improved procedures for recognizing foreign qualifications and skills. This implies effective recognition procedures. Moreover, the MIPEX cites targeted support measures for immigrants as a strength in German labor market policy (MIPEX, 2020).
The German government offers different types of language courses. For professional purposes, the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees provides free vocational language courses (Berufssprachkurse) that can be combined with vocational qualifications or work placements (internships). The courses start at a B1 language level; therefore, existing language skills are a prerequisite and can be acquired through an integration course (Integrationskurs). These integration courses consist of a language course and an orientation module (BMI, 2021).
Nevertheless, in 2021, a lack of language skills was an obstacle for obtaining a suitable job for 458,400 migrants, while for 369,200 immigrants, the obstacle lay in the lack of recognition of their qualifications (Eurostat, 2023a).
Regarding training programs, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) offers the Career Orientation for Refugees program (BOF). The BOF lasts up to 26 weeks and is designed to help young immigrants and refugees find training positions through workshops and practical experience. According to the BMBF, participants receive individual support throughout the program. However, the BOF is relatively small, with classes limited to a maximum of twelve participants (BMBF, 2023).
In 2022, the employment rate of migrants was 69.8% compared to the OECD average of 71%, with an unemployment rate of 5.6%, which was below the OECD average of 7.6%. Compared to 2021, the employment rate increased by 1.5% while the unemployment rate decreased by 0.9%. However, compared to native-born individuals, the employment rate for migrants was 9.1% lower while the unemployment rate was 3% higher. Additionally, in 2021, 58.7% of long-term or permanent immigrants migrated to Germany due to free mobility, 10.7% were labor migrants, 16.2% were family members, and 13.1% were humanitarian migrants (OECD, 2023).
Children of foreigners born in Germany acquire German citizenship if one of their parents has lived in Germany legally for eight years and possesses a permanent residence permit. Foreigners living in Germany can obtain citizenship by fulfilling specific requirements (see below). While Germany’s naturalization rate increased by 28% from 2021 to 2022 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2024), the country’s naturalization rate for 2021 was considerably below the EU average, with a percentage of 1.2% compared to 2.2% (Eurostat, 2023b).
With an allocated value of 42, the MIPEX index ranks access to citizenship in Germany as only halfway favorable and describes the naturalization process as clear but demanding. Additionally, Germany has a general ban on dual citizenship (except for EU members and Switzerland and for people born and raised in Germany who have two citizenships at birth), which contributes to low naturalization rates (MIPEX, 2020).
Under current law, immigrants must have lived in Germany for eight years before applying for citizenship. Naturalization after six years is possible through what is referred to as special integration achievements, such as particularly good language skills or civic engagement. A draft law from 2023 proposed shortening the minimum residence time from eight to five years and to up to three years in cases of special integration achievements. Further, the draft suggests enabling multiple citizenships in general (BMI, 2023b).
Political participation for immigrants regarding voting in Germany is related to the naturalization process since only German citizens (and EU citizens in municipal and European elections) have the right to vote in Germany. Given the low naturalization rate, 47% of people with a migration background – around 10.6 million – did not have German citizenship in 2021, rendering them unable to vote (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2022). Nevertheless, due to existing policies to consult and support immigrant civil society, political participation is still considered slightly favorable by the MIPEX, with a score of 60 (MIPEX, 2020).
Generally, family reunification is possible if skilled workers intend to stay in Germany for over one year. If the marriage occurs after the move to Germany, the spouse can only come to Germany two years later. The circumstances are more favorable for highly qualified migrants and immigrants with an EU Blue Card as exceptions exist in this case (BMI, 2023). Through the Opportunity Residence Act (Chancen-Aufenthaltsrecht), introduced in 2022, the requirement that spouses provide a language certificate no longer exists. According to MIPEX, Germany’s family reunification policies are more restrictive than those of most Western OECD countries. Therefore, with a score of 42, the index rates Germany’s family reunification policies as only halfway favorable (MIPEX, 2020). However, as the index was created for 2019, it does not take into account the changes brought about by the Opportunity Residence Act.
According to the MIPEX, Germany’s education policies regarding migrants are moderately favorable, with a score of 55, ranking it as the 15th country. The index indicates that Germany has made partial progress in addressing specific needs and opportunities at all school levels (MIPEX, 2020). As education is regulated by the states, the support schools offer varies across different states. In Hesse, for instance, measures such as language assessments and an overall language promotion concept exist, including mandatory preparatory German courses (Staatliche Schulämter in Hessen, n.d.).
Both the Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (BMAS) and the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community (BMI) are responsible for migration policies. However, while cooperation is necessary in some aspects, the BMI mainly focuses on broader migration subjects such as citizenship and asylum and refugee protection. In contrast, the BMAS deals with issues related to migrants and their access to the labor market.
The Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), an authority of the BMI, is responsible for executing policies related to the integration of immigrants and processing asylum applications. The Federal Employment Agency, the respective authority for the BMAS, handles tasks such as recognizing qualifications and providing employment consultation.
Additionally, the federal government has a Commissioner for Refugees, Immigrant and Migration.
Finally, it is not clear whether the government has established target values for supporting immigrants. The BAMF, however, published a report on migration and integration in 2022, monitoring educational and labor migration.
Citations:
BMBF. 2023. “Career Orientation for Immigrants.” https://www.bmbf.de/SharedDocs/Publikationen/de/bmbf/FS/31572_Berufliche_Orientierung_fuer_Zugewanderte_en.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=9
BMI. 2021. “Welcome to Germany, Information for Immigrants.” https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Integration/WillkommenDeutschland/willkommen-in-deutschland.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=21
BMI. 2023a. “Arbeitsmigration.” https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/migration/zuwanderung/arbeitsmigration/arbeitsmigration-node.html
BMI. 2023. “Anreize schaffen für Integration.” https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/schwerpunkte/DE/einwanderungsland/staatsangehoerigkeitsrecht.html
Die Bundesregierung. 2022. “Mehr Chancen für gut integrierte Geflüchtete.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/suche/erstes-migrationspaket-2059774
Eurostat. 2023. “Foreign-born population by main obstacle to get a suitable job, sex, age, citizenship and labour status.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/LFSO_21OBST02__custom_6269492/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023b. “Migrant Integration Statistics – Active Citizenship.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Migrant_integration_statistics_-_active_citizenship#Naturalisation_rate
MIPEX. 2020. “Germany.” https://www.mipex.eu/germany
OECD. 2023. International Migration Outlook 2023. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2023_b0f40584-en
Staatliche Schulämter in Hessen. n.d. “Schulische Integration.” https://schulaemter.hessen.de/schulen-und-lehrkraefte/paedagogische-unterstuetzung-von-schulen/schulische-integration
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2022. “Gut jede vierte Person in Deutschland hatte 2021 einen Migrationshintergrund.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2022/04/PD22_162_125.html
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2024. “28% mehr Einbürgerungen im Jahr 2022.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/05/PD23_205_125.html
The Federal Government. 2019. “Immigration from EU member states.” https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/en/immigration-from-eu-member-states
Germany’s migration regulations must be divided into those for EU member states and those for non-EU countries. Since EU citizens enjoy freedom of movement, they are not subject to any restrictions when working in Germany (The Federal Government, 2019). Therefore, the following policies and regulations concern immigrants from non-EU member states only.
Germany is among the countries with the lowest restrictions on the immigration of skilled workers. The Immigration Act for Skilled Workers (Fachkräfteeinwanderungsgesetz) provides the legal framework, defining skilled workers as individuals with a university degree or qualified vocational training of at least two years. Migrants with vocational training can obtain residence and work permits, allowing them to work in any profession they are qualified for, provided they have an employment contract and a salary equivalent to that of a German employee.
Skilled workers with a university degree can receive an EU Blue Card. Applicants must provide a university degree comparable to a German university degree and have a binding employment contract with a gross annual salary of at least €58,400 as of 2023. For occupations experiencing a shortage of employees, such as doctors, this minimum salary decreases to €45,552 per year (BMI, 2023).
The previously outlined favorable MIPEX score for Germany’s labor market mobility policies is largely due to improved procedures for recognizing foreign qualifications and skills. This implies effective recognition procedures. Moreover, the MIPEX cites targeted support measures for immigrants as a strength in German labor market policy (MIPEX, 2020).
The German government offers different types of language courses. For professional purposes, the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees provides free vocational language courses (Berufssprachkurse) that can be combined with vocational qualifications or work placements (internships). The courses start at a B1 language level; therefore, existing language skills are a prerequisite and can be acquired through an integration course (Integrationskurs). These integration courses consist of a language course and an orientation module (BMI, 2021).
Nevertheless, in 2021, a lack of language skills was an obstacle for obtaining a suitable job for 458,400 migrants, while for 369,200 immigrants, the obstacle lay in the lack of recognition of their qualifications (Eurostat, 2023a).
Regarding training programs, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) offers the Career Orientation for Refugees program (BOF). The BOF lasts up to 26 weeks and is designed to help young immigrants and refugees find training positions through workshops and practical experience. According to the BMBF, participants receive individual support throughout the program. However, the BOF is relatively small, with classes limited to a maximum of twelve participants (BMBF, 2023).
In 2022, the employment rate of migrants was 69.8% compared to the OECD average of 71%, with an unemployment rate of 5.6%, which was below the OECD average of 7.6%. Compared to 2021, the employment rate increased by 1.5% while the unemployment rate decreased by 0.9%. However, compared to native-born individuals, the employment rate for migrants was 9.1% lower while the unemployment rate was 3% higher. Additionally, in 2021, 58.7% of long-term or permanent immigrants migrated to Germany due to free mobility, 10.7% were labor migrants, 16.2% were family members, and 13.1% were humanitarian migrants (OECD, 2023).
Children of foreigners born in Germany acquire German citizenship if one of their parents has lived in Germany legally for eight years and possesses a permanent residence permit. Foreigners living in Germany can obtain citizenship by fulfilling specific requirements (see below). While Germany’s naturalization rate increased by 28% from 2021 to 2022 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2024), the country’s naturalization rate for 2021 was considerably below the EU average, with a percentage of 1.2% compared to 2.2% (Eurostat, 2023b).
With an allocated value of 42, the MIPEX index ranks access to citizenship in Germany as only halfway favorable and describes the naturalization process as clear but demanding. Additionally, Germany has a general ban on dual citizenship (except for EU members and Switzerland and for people born and raised in Germany who have two citizenships at birth), which contributes to low naturalization rates (MIPEX, 2020).
Under current law, immigrants must have lived in Germany for eight years before applying for citizenship. Naturalization after six years is possible through what is referred to as special integration achievements, such as particularly good language skills or civic engagement. A draft law from 2023 proposed shortening the minimum residence time from eight to five years and to up to three years in cases of special integration achievements. Further, the draft suggests enabling multiple citizenships in general (BMI, 2023b).
Political participation for immigrants regarding voting in Germany is related to the naturalization process since only German citizens (and EU citizens in municipal and European elections) have the right to vote in Germany. Given the low naturalization rate, 47% of people with a migration background – around 10.6 million – did not have German citizenship in 2021, rendering them unable to vote (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2022). Nevertheless, due to existing policies to consult and support immigrant civil society, political participation is still considered slightly favorable by the MIPEX, with a score of 60 (MIPEX, 2020).
Generally, family reunification is possible if skilled workers intend to stay in Germany for over one year. If the marriage occurs after the move to Germany, the spouse can only come to Germany two years later. The circumstances are more favorable for highly qualified migrants and immigrants with an EU Blue Card as exceptions exist in this case (BMI, 2023). Through the Opportunity Residence Act (Chancen-Aufenthaltsrecht), introduced in 2022, the requirement that spouses provide a language certificate no longer exists. According to MIPEX, Germany’s family reunification policies are more restrictive than those of most Western OECD countries. Therefore, with a score of 42, the index rates Germany’s family reunification policies as only halfway favorable (MIPEX, 2020). However, as the index was created for 2019, it does not take into account the changes brought about by the Opportunity Residence Act.
According to the MIPEX, Germany’s education policies regarding migrants are moderately favorable, with a score of 55, ranking it as the 15th country. The index indicates that Germany has made partial progress in addressing specific needs and opportunities at all school levels (MIPEX, 2020). As education is regulated by the states, the support schools offer varies across different states. In Hesse, for instance, measures such as language assessments and an overall language promotion concept exist, including mandatory preparatory German courses (Staatliche Schulämter in Hessen, n.d.).
Both the Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (BMAS) and the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community (BMI) are responsible for migration policies. However, while cooperation is necessary in some aspects, the BMI mainly focuses on broader migration subjects such as citizenship and asylum and refugee protection. In contrast, the BMAS deals with issues related to migrants and their access to the labor market.
The Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), an authority of the BMI, is responsible for executing policies related to the integration of immigrants and processing asylum applications. The Federal Employment Agency, the respective authority for the BMAS, handles tasks such as recognizing qualifications and providing employment consultation.
Additionally, the federal government has a Commissioner for Refugees, Immigrant and Migration.
Finally, it is not clear whether the government has established target values for supporting immigrants. The BAMF, however, published a report on migration and integration in 2022, monitoring educational and labor migration.
Citations:
BMBF. 2023. “Career Orientation for Immigrants.” https://www.bmbf.de/SharedDocs/Publikationen/de/bmbf/FS/31572_Berufliche_Orientierung_fuer_Zugewanderte_en.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=9
BMI. 2021. “Welcome to Germany, Information for Immigrants.” https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Integration/WillkommenDeutschland/willkommen-in-deutschland.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=21
BMI. 2023a. “Arbeitsmigration.” https://www.bmi.bund.de/DE/themen/migration/zuwanderung/arbeitsmigration/arbeitsmigration-node.html
BMI. 2023. “Anreize schaffen für Integration.” https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/schwerpunkte/DE/einwanderungsland/staatsangehoerigkeitsrecht.html
Die Bundesregierung. 2022. “Mehr Chancen für gut integrierte Geflüchtete.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/suche/erstes-migrationspaket-2059774
Eurostat. 2023. “Foreign-born population by main obstacle to get a suitable job, sex, age, citizenship and labour status.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/LFSO_21OBST02__custom_6269492/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023b. “Migrant Integration Statistics – Active Citizenship.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Migrant_integration_statistics_-_active_citizenship#Naturalisation_rate
MIPEX. 2020. “Germany.” https://www.mipex.eu/germany
OECD. 2023. International Migration Outlook 2023. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/international-migration-outlook-2023_b0f40584-en
Staatliche Schulämter in Hessen. n.d. “Schulische Integration.” https://schulaemter.hessen.de/schulen-und-lehrkraefte/paedagogische-unterstuetzung-von-schulen/schulische-integration
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2022. “Gut jede vierte Person in Deutschland hatte 2021 einen Migrationshintergrund.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2022/04/PD22_162_125.html
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2024. “28% mehr Einbürgerungen im Jahr 2022.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2023/05/PD23_205_125.html
The Federal Government. 2019. “Immigration from EU member states.” https://www.make-it-in-germany.com/en/immigration-from-eu-member-states
Graph View
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
As of 2015, Germany has had a Sustainable Development Strategy (GSDS), which was updated in 2021. The strategy outlines the framework for the national implementation of the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development with 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). The first goal is to eradicate poverty, while additional goals, such as ending hunger and ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all ages, are also connected to poverty (United Nations, 2015).
The updated GSDS contains 75 indicators in 39 target areas, which were adapted based on the findings of the 2017 GSDS. To regularly monitor progress, the Federal Statistical Office reports on the indicators every two years. Additionally, the 2021 GSDS details the implementation status of the different development targets (Federal Government, 2020).
In addition to the Sustainable Development Strategy, the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) has published multiple development strategies since the start of the new legislative period. Specifically, there are three core area strategies: a strategy for sustainable agri-food systems, a strategy for health, social security, and population dynamics, and a strategy for sustainable economic development, education, and employment. In addition, the BMZ developed individual strategies for Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia that include all relevant fields of action for the region. These strategies are not binding.
The core area strategy “Sustainable Agri-Foods Systems: A World Without Hunger,” for instance, includes goals in food and nutrition security, agriculture, and rural development. Particularly, the goal of promoting rural development involves aims such as fighting poverty in rural areas by ensuring secure employment and income opportunities and creating infrastructure for the general public. While the strategy does not outline specific measures in terms of concrete initiatives or policies, it identifies several overall targets for capacity-building, such as securing legitimate land rights and ensuring equal access to land to strengthen rural governance. The strategy further includes twelve standard indicators that can be used to monitor the results of programs or projects in line with the strategy’s goals (BMZ, 2021).
While there is no information on the frequency of government monitoring progress, reports and evaluations are published by the BMZ or by the German Institute for Development Evaluation. Evaluation reports follow the BMZ Evaluation Policy, which outlines the guidelines for evaluating German development cooperation (BMZ, 2023a).
Germany’s net official development assistance (ODA) has steadily increased since 2018, rising from 0.6% of gross national income (GNI) to 0.8% of GNI in 2022, compared to an average of 0.37% for all countries in the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) in 2022. In addition to this continuous increase in ODA relative to GNI, Germany is the second-largest net contributor to the DAC, with a contribution of $37,918 million for 2022 (OECD, 2024). Furthermore, the 2021 coalition agreement pledged to continue fulfilling a minimum ODA rate of 0.7% of GNI, allocating 0.2% to the least-developed countries (SPD, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen and FDP, 2021). Based on these pledges, the development assistance flows can be considered predictable.
The existing cooperation policies support capacity-building for poverty reduction. The 2021 report on the implementation of the Agenda 2030 details which policies were enacted to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For example, to meet the goal of ending poverty, Germany supported the development of social security systems such as basic insurance and health insurance. In Malawi, Germany assisted with the introduction of directly receivable Social Cash Transfers. Nevertheless, according to the report, development is progressing but still falls short of the target for ending poverty by 5 to 10% (Bundesregierung, 2021).
Considering the German government’s provision of technology access, the BMZ supports multiple programs and initiatives. For example, the special initiative “Transformation of Agricultural and Food Systems” aids in the development of sustainable and resource-conserving cultivation and processing technologies, particularly for smallholder farmers. These technologies include more targeted irrigation and machinery adapted to local conditions. The initiative encompasses around 300 projects and supports five knowledge centers for organic farming to facilitate knowledge-sharing and foster innovation in developing countries (BMZ, 2023b).
In scientific knowledge, the DAAD project “SDG Partnerships,” funded by the BMZ, promotes the expansion of educational capacities by improving teaching, research, and higher education management at partner institutions. In the long term, the program aims to develop sustainable higher education institutions in partner countries. As of 2023, 34 projects were funded for the period from 2023 to 2026 (DAAD, 2023).
Germany is a participant in the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (GFATM) concerning the provision of healthcare and medicine. The fund finances national measures against these three illnesses and aims to build the capacity of recipient countries. As of 2022, Germany contributed €4.6 billion to the fund and pledged another €1.3 billion for 2023 – 2025 (The Global Fund, 2023).
According to the 2021 report on implementing Agenda 2030 in Germany, out of nine indicators for the SGI goal of ensuring healthy lives and well-being, five targets are estimated to be reached or almost reached. However, the indicators for premature mortality in both men and women are developing in the right direction but are expected to miss the target by 20% (Bundesregierung, 2021).
Citations:
BMZ. 2021. “Sustainable Agri-Food Systems, A World without Hunger, BMZ Strategies, BMZ Paper 5.” https://www.bmz.de/resource/blob/100758/bmz-core-area-strategy-a-world-without-hunger.pdf
BMZ. 2023a. “Evaluating German Development Cooperation, BMZ Evaluation Policy.” https://www.bmz.de/resource/blob/194630/bmz193-strategiepapier-evaluierung-en.pdf
BMZ. 2023b. “Transformation der Agrar- und Ernährungssysteme.” https://www.bmz.de/de/themen/ernaehrungssicherung/transformation-der-agrar-und-ernaehrungssysteme
DAAD. 2023. “SDG Partnerships.” https://www.daad.de/en/information-services-for-higher-education-institutions/further-information-on-daad-programmes/sdg-partnerschaften/
Bundesregierung. 2021. “Bericht über die Umsetzung der Agenda 2030 für nachhaltige Entwicklung.” https://www.bmz.de/resource/blob/86824/staatenbericht-deutschlands-zum-hlpf-2021.pdf
OECD. 2024. “Net ODA (indicator).” https://data.oecd.org/oda/net-oda.htm#indicator-chart
SPD, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, FDP. 2021. “Mehr Fortschritt wagen, Bündnis für Freiheit, Gerechtigkeit und Nachhaltigkeit, Koalitionsvertrag 2021-2025.” https://www.spd.de/fileadmin/Dokumente/Koalitionsvertrag/Koalitionsvertrag_2021-2025.pdf
Federal Government. 2020. “German Sustainable Development Strategy, Update 2021, Summary Version.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/resource/blob/998194/1942596/41a46a8f935a9b2945ee26d7593801ca/deutsche-nachhaltigkeitsstrategie-2021-kurzfassung-englisch-bf-download-bpa-data.pdf?download=1
The Global Fund. 2023. “Germany and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria.” https://www.theglobalfund.org/media/13432/donor_germany_report_en.pdf
United Nations. 2015. “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/291/89/PDF/N1529189.pdf?OpenElement
The updated GSDS contains 75 indicators in 39 target areas, which were adapted based on the findings of the 2017 GSDS. To regularly monitor progress, the Federal Statistical Office reports on the indicators every two years. Additionally, the 2021 GSDS details the implementation status of the different development targets (Federal Government, 2020).
In addition to the Sustainable Development Strategy, the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) has published multiple development strategies since the start of the new legislative period. Specifically, there are three core area strategies: a strategy for sustainable agri-food systems, a strategy for health, social security, and population dynamics, and a strategy for sustainable economic development, education, and employment. In addition, the BMZ developed individual strategies for Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia that include all relevant fields of action for the region. These strategies are not binding.
The core area strategy “Sustainable Agri-Foods Systems: A World Without Hunger,” for instance, includes goals in food and nutrition security, agriculture, and rural development. Particularly, the goal of promoting rural development involves aims such as fighting poverty in rural areas by ensuring secure employment and income opportunities and creating infrastructure for the general public. While the strategy does not outline specific measures in terms of concrete initiatives or policies, it identifies several overall targets for capacity-building, such as securing legitimate land rights and ensuring equal access to land to strengthen rural governance. The strategy further includes twelve standard indicators that can be used to monitor the results of programs or projects in line with the strategy’s goals (BMZ, 2021).
While there is no information on the frequency of government monitoring progress, reports and evaluations are published by the BMZ or by the German Institute for Development Evaluation. Evaluation reports follow the BMZ Evaluation Policy, which outlines the guidelines for evaluating German development cooperation (BMZ, 2023a).
Germany’s net official development assistance (ODA) has steadily increased since 2018, rising from 0.6% of gross national income (GNI) to 0.8% of GNI in 2022, compared to an average of 0.37% for all countries in the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) in 2022. In addition to this continuous increase in ODA relative to GNI, Germany is the second-largest net contributor to the DAC, with a contribution of $37,918 million for 2022 (OECD, 2024). Furthermore, the 2021 coalition agreement pledged to continue fulfilling a minimum ODA rate of 0.7% of GNI, allocating 0.2% to the least-developed countries (SPD, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen and FDP, 2021). Based on these pledges, the development assistance flows can be considered predictable.
The existing cooperation policies support capacity-building for poverty reduction. The 2021 report on the implementation of the Agenda 2030 details which policies were enacted to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For example, to meet the goal of ending poverty, Germany supported the development of social security systems such as basic insurance and health insurance. In Malawi, Germany assisted with the introduction of directly receivable Social Cash Transfers. Nevertheless, according to the report, development is progressing but still falls short of the target for ending poverty by 5 to 10% (Bundesregierung, 2021).
Considering the German government’s provision of technology access, the BMZ supports multiple programs and initiatives. For example, the special initiative “Transformation of Agricultural and Food Systems” aids in the development of sustainable and resource-conserving cultivation and processing technologies, particularly for smallholder farmers. These technologies include more targeted irrigation and machinery adapted to local conditions. The initiative encompasses around 300 projects and supports five knowledge centers for organic farming to facilitate knowledge-sharing and foster innovation in developing countries (BMZ, 2023b).
In scientific knowledge, the DAAD project “SDG Partnerships,” funded by the BMZ, promotes the expansion of educational capacities by improving teaching, research, and higher education management at partner institutions. In the long term, the program aims to develop sustainable higher education institutions in partner countries. As of 2023, 34 projects were funded for the period from 2023 to 2026 (DAAD, 2023).
Germany is a participant in the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (GFATM) concerning the provision of healthcare and medicine. The fund finances national measures against these three illnesses and aims to build the capacity of recipient countries. As of 2022, Germany contributed €4.6 billion to the fund and pledged another €1.3 billion for 2023 – 2025 (The Global Fund, 2023).
According to the 2021 report on implementing Agenda 2030 in Germany, out of nine indicators for the SGI goal of ensuring healthy lives and well-being, five targets are estimated to be reached or almost reached. However, the indicators for premature mortality in both men and women are developing in the right direction but are expected to miss the target by 20% (Bundesregierung, 2021).
Citations:
BMZ. 2021. “Sustainable Agri-Food Systems, A World without Hunger, BMZ Strategies, BMZ Paper 5.” https://www.bmz.de/resource/blob/100758/bmz-core-area-strategy-a-world-without-hunger.pdf
BMZ. 2023a. “Evaluating German Development Cooperation, BMZ Evaluation Policy.” https://www.bmz.de/resource/blob/194630/bmz193-strategiepapier-evaluierung-en.pdf
BMZ. 2023b. “Transformation der Agrar- und Ernährungssysteme.” https://www.bmz.de/de/themen/ernaehrungssicherung/transformation-der-agrar-und-ernaehrungssysteme
DAAD. 2023. “SDG Partnerships.” https://www.daad.de/en/information-services-for-higher-education-institutions/further-information-on-daad-programmes/sdg-partnerschaften/
Bundesregierung. 2021. “Bericht über die Umsetzung der Agenda 2030 für nachhaltige Entwicklung.” https://www.bmz.de/resource/blob/86824/staatenbericht-deutschlands-zum-hlpf-2021.pdf
OECD. 2024. “Net ODA (indicator).” https://data.oecd.org/oda/net-oda.htm#indicator-chart
SPD, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, FDP. 2021. “Mehr Fortschritt wagen, Bündnis für Freiheit, Gerechtigkeit und Nachhaltigkeit, Koalitionsvertrag 2021-2025.” https://www.spd.de/fileadmin/Dokumente/Koalitionsvertrag/Koalitionsvertrag_2021-2025.pdf
Federal Government. 2020. “German Sustainable Development Strategy, Update 2021, Summary Version.” https://www.bundesregierung.de/resource/blob/998194/1942596/41a46a8f935a9b2945ee26d7593801ca/deutsche-nachhaltigkeitsstrategie-2021-kurzfassung-englisch-bf-download-bpa-data.pdf?download=1
The Global Fund. 2023. “Germany and the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria.” https://www.theglobalfund.org/media/13432/donor_germany_report_en.pdf
United Nations. 2015. “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.” https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/291/89/PDF/N1529189.pdf?OpenElement