Consensus-Building
#15Key Findings
In the category of consensus-building, Ireland falls into the middle ranks internationally (rank 15).
Policymakers incorporate scientific knowledge both through in-house research and outsourced analysis. The Irish Fiscal Advisory Council, a statutory body of academic experts, assesses government budgetary goals. Among experts, economists tend to have the most policy influence.
In recent years, the government has reengaged with civil society organizations, especially trade unions and business associations, in policy discussions. The tripartite relationship that was nearly halted during the crisis has reemerged, though in somewhat weaker form. Other organizations and advocacy groups also participate in policymaking, from inception to implementation.
New consultation forums such as Citizens’ Assemblies are becoming increasingly influential. However, the rise of evidence-informed policymaking has shifted the state’s focus toward professional experts over smaller advocacy groups. Considerable effort has been made to expand transparency and open government functions over the past decade.
Policymakers incorporate scientific knowledge both through in-house research and outsourced analysis. The Irish Fiscal Advisory Council, a statutory body of academic experts, assesses government budgetary goals. Among experts, economists tend to have the most policy influence.
In recent years, the government has reengaged with civil society organizations, especially trade unions and business associations, in policy discussions. The tripartite relationship that was nearly halted during the crisis has reemerged, though in somewhat weaker form. Other organizations and advocacy groups also participate in policymaking, from inception to implementation.
New consultation forums such as Citizens’ Assemblies are becoming increasingly influential. However, the rise of evidence-informed policymaking has shifted the state’s focus toward professional experts over smaller advocacy groups. Considerable effort has been made to expand transparency and open government functions over the past decade.
Graph View
Graph View
To what extent is the government successful in effectively harnessing the best available scientific knowledge for policymaking purposes?
10
9
9
The government is able to harness the best available scientific knowledge for policymaking purposes.
8
7
6
7
6
In most cases, the government is able to harness the best available scientific knowledge for policymaking purposes.
5
4
3
4
3
Only rarely is the government able to harness the best available scientific knowledge for policymaking purposes.
2
1
1
The government is not able to harness the best available scientific knowledge for policymaking purposes.
Irish policymaking incorporates scientific knowledge through in-house civil service research and outsourced analysis from organizations like the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI), the National Economic and Social Council, various research contracts and private consultancy. One of the three pillars of the 2023 central government strategy, Better Public Services – the Public Service Transformation 2030 Strategy, is “evidence-informed policy and services designed for and with our public.” The Irish Fiscal Advisory Council (IFAC), an independent statutory body of five academic experts, is mandated to assess and comment on the government’s budgetary targets and objectives. Additionally, advisory posts within governmental departments are predominantly held by academics.
However, national policy is largely dominated by economics, particularly neoclassical economics, which limits the diversity of perspectives and values informing policy. There has been no assessment of the efficacy of such advisory roles on policymaking, nor is there an established pattern of consultation with non-governmental experts.
The application of scientific knowledge in policymaking is fragmented, and the quality of evidence varies substantially. Knowledge cultures often favor reductive, simplifying and short-term analyses over holistic, complex and long-term approaches (O’Mahony and Torney 2023). This limitation is evident in the criticism of the reliance on technology to achieve sustainable development, a criticism that began more than a decade ago (O’Mahony 2013) and has now become mainstream (O’Mahony 2018; Gaur et al. 2022). Monodisciplinary inquiry is common, whereas interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches may be more desirable. Quantitative analysis is often equated with objectivity and is favored over qualitative analysis, with STEM fields preferred over Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences (AHSS).
International observers have noted weaknesses in Ireland’s research and development, including inadequate funding (European Commission, 2020). Funded research is dominated by agriculture, a powerful vested interest in policy, with limited investment in environmental and energy research (OECD 2021). Concerns have been raised about the independence of Irish research and policy advisory, particularly the influence of the meat industry (Carrington 2023). Groupthink was evident during the financial crisis, with overly optimistic economic growth advice given to the government (O’Mahony et al. 2023). The exclusion of marginalized groups, including those experiencing poverty, deprivation and minorities such as refugees and migrants, is also a concern. This exclusion may be linked to deficits in key services such as housing, where powerful vested interests have influenced policy to favor limited government intervention, resulting in housing scarcity that supports rent-seeking by property owners and landowners.
Citations:
Government of Ireland. 2023. General Scheme of Research and Innovation Bill, 2023. https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/d6827-general-scheme-of-research-and-innovation-bill-2023/
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Impact 2030: Ireland’s Research and Innovation Strategy.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/27c78-impact-2030-irelands-new-research-and-innovation-strategy
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Press Release.” https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/c6f16-minister-harris-establishes-new-research-and-innovation-policy-advisory-forum-and-issues-call-for-members/
Government of Ireland. 2022. “Organisation Information.” https://www.gov.ie/en/organisation-information/8f949-irish-government-economic-and-evaluation-service-igees/
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Better Public Services.” https://www.gov.ie/en/campaigns/1cde2-better-public-services/
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Infrastructure Guidelines.” https://www.gov.ie/en/collection/e8040-infrastructure-guidelines/?referrer=http://www.gov.ie/en/publication/public-spending-code/
Carrington, D. 2023. “Revealed: the industry figures behind ‘declaration of scientists’ backing meat eating.” Guardian, October 27. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/oct/27/revealed-industry-figures-declaration-scientists-backing-meat-eating
European Commission. 2020. Commission Staff Working Document: Country Report Ireland 2020. SWD (2020) 506 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020SC0506&from=EN
Gaur, A., et al. 2022. “Low Energy Demand Scenario for Feasible Deep Decarbonisation: Whole Energy Systems Modelling for Ireland.” Renew. Sustain. Energy Trans. 2: 100024.
OECD. 2021. OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Ireland 2021. OECD iLibrary. https://doi.org/10.1787/9ef10b4f-en
O’Mahony, M., and D. Torney. 2023. “Transforming Development: Economy, Innovation and Finance, Chapter 6.” In Irish Climate Change Assessment 4. https://www.epa.ie/publications/monitoring–assessment/climate-change/ICCA_Volume-4.pdf
O’Mahony, T. et al. 2023. “Time to Build a New Practice of Foresight for National Economies? Ireland, and Uncertain Futures in Forecasts and Scenarios.” Foresight. https://doi.org/10.1108/FS-10-2021-0191
O’Mahony, T. 2013. “Decomposition of Ireland’s Carbon Emissions from 1990 to 2010: An Extended Kaya Identity.” Energy Policy 59: 573-581.
However, national policy is largely dominated by economics, particularly neoclassical economics, which limits the diversity of perspectives and values informing policy. There has been no assessment of the efficacy of such advisory roles on policymaking, nor is there an established pattern of consultation with non-governmental experts.
The application of scientific knowledge in policymaking is fragmented, and the quality of evidence varies substantially. Knowledge cultures often favor reductive, simplifying and short-term analyses over holistic, complex and long-term approaches (O’Mahony and Torney 2023). This limitation is evident in the criticism of the reliance on technology to achieve sustainable development, a criticism that began more than a decade ago (O’Mahony 2013) and has now become mainstream (O’Mahony 2018; Gaur et al. 2022). Monodisciplinary inquiry is common, whereas interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches may be more desirable. Quantitative analysis is often equated with objectivity and is favored over qualitative analysis, with STEM fields preferred over Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences (AHSS).
International observers have noted weaknesses in Ireland’s research and development, including inadequate funding (European Commission, 2020). Funded research is dominated by agriculture, a powerful vested interest in policy, with limited investment in environmental and energy research (OECD 2021). Concerns have been raised about the independence of Irish research and policy advisory, particularly the influence of the meat industry (Carrington 2023). Groupthink was evident during the financial crisis, with overly optimistic economic growth advice given to the government (O’Mahony et al. 2023). The exclusion of marginalized groups, including those experiencing poverty, deprivation and minorities such as refugees and migrants, is also a concern. This exclusion may be linked to deficits in key services such as housing, where powerful vested interests have influenced policy to favor limited government intervention, resulting in housing scarcity that supports rent-seeking by property owners and landowners.
Citations:
Government of Ireland. 2023. General Scheme of Research and Innovation Bill, 2023. https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/d6827-general-scheme-of-research-and-innovation-bill-2023/
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Impact 2030: Ireland’s Research and Innovation Strategy.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/27c78-impact-2030-irelands-new-research-and-innovation-strategy
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Press Release.” https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/c6f16-minister-harris-establishes-new-research-and-innovation-policy-advisory-forum-and-issues-call-for-members/
Government of Ireland. 2022. “Organisation Information.” https://www.gov.ie/en/organisation-information/8f949-irish-government-economic-and-evaluation-service-igees/
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Better Public Services.” https://www.gov.ie/en/campaigns/1cde2-better-public-services/
Government of Ireland. 2023. “Infrastructure Guidelines.” https://www.gov.ie/en/collection/e8040-infrastructure-guidelines/?referrer=http://www.gov.ie/en/publication/public-spending-code/
Carrington, D. 2023. “Revealed: the industry figures behind ‘declaration of scientists’ backing meat eating.” Guardian, October 27. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/oct/27/revealed-industry-figures-declaration-scientists-backing-meat-eating
European Commission. 2020. Commission Staff Working Document: Country Report Ireland 2020. SWD (2020) 506 final. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020SC0506&from=EN
Gaur, A., et al. 2022. “Low Energy Demand Scenario for Feasible Deep Decarbonisation: Whole Energy Systems Modelling for Ireland.” Renew. Sustain. Energy Trans. 2: 100024.
OECD. 2021. OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Ireland 2021. OECD iLibrary. https://doi.org/10.1787/9ef10b4f-en
O’Mahony, M., and D. Torney. 2023. “Transforming Development: Economy, Innovation and Finance, Chapter 6.” In Irish Climate Change Assessment 4. https://www.epa.ie/publications/monitoring–assessment/climate-change/ICCA_Volume-4.pdf
O’Mahony, T. et al. 2023. “Time to Build a New Practice of Foresight for National Economies? Ireland, and Uncertain Futures in Forecasts and Scenarios.” Foresight. https://doi.org/10.1108/FS-10-2021-0191
O’Mahony, T. 2013. “Decomposition of Ireland’s Carbon Emissions from 1990 to 2010: An Extended Kaya Identity.” Energy Policy 59: 573-581.
Graph View
To what extent does the government facilitate the participation of trade unions and business organizations in policymaking?
10
9
9
The government is able to effectively involve trade unions and business organizations in policy development.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the time, the government is able to effectively involve trade unions and business organizations in policy development.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is rarely able to effectively involve trade unions and business organizations in policy development.
2
1
1
The government is not able to effectively involve trade unions and business organizations in policy development.
In the past decade, the central government has fostered the involvement of CSOs, including trade unions and business associations, in the policymaking process, with a special emphasis on economic dialogue. The tripartite social partnership of public and private employers and employees, which was nearly halted during the economic crisis, has re-emerged, albeit with less involvement from private sector stakeholders. O’Donnell (2021) found that the state created useful institutional governance structures to involve social partners – employers, unions, farmers and voluntary/community organizations – particularly through the National Economic and Social Council (NESC). NESC’s early social partnership work was instrumental in enabling a strategy for development to overcome the national economic crisis of the 1980s (NESC 1986), playing a central role in its resolution. Since the social partnership process dissipated in 2010, the government has facilitated the participation of CSOs – such as trade unions, business associations and social and environmental groups – in policy dialogue. Ireland has a strong track record of consensus-building through social partnership and policy processes, once described as “a deliberative miracle” (Sabel 2000). This contributes to high levels of public trust, which, despite experiencing some decline, remain relatively strong. While both O’Donnell and Sabel note the successes of social partnership and dialogue, the extent and satisfaction of business and labor CSOs with policy participation remains unclear.
Citations:
Sabel, C. 2020. “Governance and Wicked Problems: Environment, Climate, Human Services and Quality Jobs.” Paper prepared for the Knowledge and Policy: Confronting Governance Challenges in the New Decade Conference, January. Dublin: NESC and Department of Sociology, Maynooth University.
O’Donnell, R. 2021. The Social Partners and the NESC: From Tripartite Dialogue via Common Knowledge Events to Network Knowledge. Bristol: Policy Press.
Citations:
Sabel, C. 2020. “Governance and Wicked Problems: Environment, Climate, Human Services and Quality Jobs.” Paper prepared for the Knowledge and Policy: Confronting Governance Challenges in the New Decade Conference, January. Dublin: NESC and Department of Sociology, Maynooth University.
O’Donnell, R. 2021. The Social Partners and the NESC: From Tripartite Dialogue via Common Knowledge Events to Network Knowledge. Bristol: Policy Press.
To what extent does the government facilitate the participation of leading social welfare CSOs in policymaking?
10
9
9
The government is able to effectively involve leading social welfare CSOs in policy development.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the time, the government is able to effectively involve leading social welfare CSOs in policy development.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is rarely able to effectively involve leading social welfare CSOs in policy development.
2
1
1
The government is not able to effectively involve leading social welfare CSOs in policy development.
Public trust in the government and public sector in Ireland remains strong compared to the EU-27, a phenomenon Sabel (2020) has termed a “deliberative miracle.” This strong social partnership, based on consensus-building, leads to healthy participation of CSOs in policy processes from inception to implementation. The main venue for participation is the Citizens’ Assemblies, which have recently become open to any adult resident of Ireland. The latest assembly in October made recommendations on drug use. In 2015, as part of the Civil Service Action Plan (DPER 2014), Open Policy Debates were introduced to include experts and CSOs in the early stages of policy drafting. Additionally, the Constitutional Convention allows citizens and CSOs to contribute to proposed changes to the Constitution. Departmental communication offices actively engage with the public. More than a decade ago, Murphy (2011) raised concerns that decades of partnership arrangements might have served to silence ideological debate and alternative political discourse, effectively co-opting civil society through corporatism.
Citations:
Citizens Information. 2023. “Citizens’ Assembly.” https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/government-in-ireland/irish-constitution-1/citizens-assembly/
Sabel, C. 2020. “Governance and Wicked Problems: Environment, Climate, Human Services and Quality Jobs.” Paper prepared for the Knowledge and Policy: Confronting Governance Challenges in the New Decade Conference, January, Dublin: NESC and Department of Sociology, Maynooth University.
Murphy, M.P. 2011. “Civil Society in the Shadow of the Irish State.” Irish Journal of Sociology 19 (2): 170-187.
Citations:
Citizens Information. 2023. “Citizens’ Assembly.” https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/government-in-ireland/irish-constitution-1/citizens-assembly/
Sabel, C. 2020. “Governance and Wicked Problems: Environment, Climate, Human Services and Quality Jobs.” Paper prepared for the Knowledge and Policy: Confronting Governance Challenges in the New Decade Conference, January, Dublin: NESC and Department of Sociology, Maynooth University.
Murphy, M.P. 2011. “Civil Society in the Shadow of the Irish State.” Irish Journal of Sociology 19 (2): 170-187.
To what extent does the government facilitate the participation of leading environmental CSOs in policymaking?
10
9
9
The government is able to effectively involve leading environmental CSOs in policy development.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the time, the government is able to effectively involve leading environmental CSOs in policy development.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is rarely able to effectively involve leading environmental CSOs in policy development.
2
1
1
The government is not able to effectively involve leading environmental CSOs in policy development.
The inclusion of CSOs and advocacy groups is heralded as one of the most successful aspects of the Convention and Citizens’ Assembly processes. Many CSOs are taking positions in emerging and established governance arrangements, such as the National Economic and Social Council (NESC), to influence policy and decision-making processes. The Irish Citizens’ Assembly, addressing “how to make Ireland a leader in tackling climate change” has positioned Ireland as a pioneer in citizen participation. The Assembly’s report was brought to the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Climate Action (JOCCA), which incorporated most of its suggestions – except for the tax on GHG emissions from agriculture – into its 42 priority recommendations, including elevating climate action to the same level of importance as finance and budgetary matters (Houses of the Oireachtas 2019). This report formed the basis for the interministerial Climate Action Plan of 2019 (Harris 2021). The Bioeconomy Action Plan for 2023-2050, published at the end of 2023, includes proposals for different governance arrangements at both vertical and horizontal levels. A forum and an expert advisory group are to be set up to allow input from experts and environmental organizations. The success of these new arrangements is currently being studied by the Institute of Public Administration (IPA) (Country Brief 2023 Ireland). It is important to note that the growing interest in evidence-informed policymaking (EIPM) has somewhat shifted the focus toward professional experts at the expense of community knowledge. This has led to a preference for governmental bodies to work with larger organizations rather than advocacy CSOs. An environmental CSO report card on the progress of government commitments has noted some improvements, but overall progress on environmental issues remains inadequate given the scale of the challenges (Friends of the Earth 2023).
Citations:
European Commission. 2023. European Public Administration Country Brief 2023: Ireland.
Houses of the Oireachtas. 2019. “Joint Committee on Climate Action Debate.” https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/debate/joint_committee_on_climate_action/2019-11-06/2/
Harris, C. 2021. “Democratic Innovations and Policy Analysis: Climate Policy and Ireland’s Citizens’ Assembly (2016-2018).” In Policy Analysis in Ireland, eds. J. Hogan and M. P. Murphy, 219-234. Bristol: Policy Press.
Friends of the Earth. 2023. “Programme for Government Report Card on the Status of Environmental Commitments Made in Ireland’s 2020 Programme for Government.” https://www.friendsoftheearth.ie/assets/files/pdf/2023_pfg_report_card_on_climate__environment_.pdf
Citations:
European Commission. 2023. European Public Administration Country Brief 2023: Ireland.
Houses of the Oireachtas. 2019. “Joint Committee on Climate Action Debate.” https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/debate/joint_committee_on_climate_action/2019-11-06/2/
Harris, C. 2021. “Democratic Innovations and Policy Analysis: Climate Policy and Ireland’s Citizens’ Assembly (2016-2018).” In Policy Analysis in Ireland, eds. J. Hogan and M. P. Murphy, 219-234. Bristol: Policy Press.
Friends of the Earth. 2023. “Programme for Government Report Card on the Status of Environmental Commitments Made in Ireland’s 2020 Programme for Government.” https://www.friendsoftheearth.ie/assets/files/pdf/2023_pfg_report_card_on_climate__environment_.pdf
Graph View
To what extent does the government publish data and information that empowers citizens to hold the government accountable?
10
9
9
The government publishes data and information in a manner that empowers citizens to hold the government accountable.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the time, the government publishes data and information in a manner that empowers citizens to hold the government accountable.
5
4
3
4
3
The government rarely publishes data and information in a manner that strengthens citizens to hold the government accountable.
2
1
1
The government does not publish data and information in a manner that strengthens citizens’ capacity to hold the government accountable.
Ireland can be understood as a regulatory state, with a significant expansion of regulatory bodies across economic, social, and environmental sectors, as well as oversight of government. Some of this expansion is associated with EU directives. However, Ireland faces significant weaknesses in capacity, effectiveness and accountability, although some regulatory bodies, including the Comptroller and Auditor General (C&AG) and the Central Bank of Ireland as an independent financial regulator, are considered robust (Scott 2021). Murphy (2021) notes that the past decade has seen a focus on open government, transparency and avoiding secrecy, with a range of legislation and policies building on earlier acts such as the Ethics in Public Office Act (1995) and the Freedom of Information Act (1997), as well as the Standards in Public Office Act (2001). While the Ombudsman’s office is independent of government (appointed by the president after nomination by parliament), it lacks the power to sanction despite extended powers in 2012. Media scrutiny and parliamentary inquiry also play roles in ensuring transparency. Newer open government initiatives include whistleblowing and lobbying regulation, though enforcement issues persist.
Ireland ranks 13th among the EU-27 for government transparency and scores highly for open data maturity (97.2% on open data policy, 86.7% on impact, 97% on the portal and 87.5% on quality). This ranking has remained consistent over the past few years, with no significant changes or pressures for changes in access to government data and publication of assets/income declarations. The roles, remits and data of the Office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (OCAG) and the Ombudsman institutions have remained the same. Recent changes in the accountability architecture include the Policing, Security and Community Safety Bill 2023, which restructures the Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission (GSOC) into a new Office of the Police Ombudsman. Additionally, the responsibility for ethical legislation-related functions has been transferred to the Minister for Public Expenditure, National Development Plan Delivery and Reform (DPENDR). In March 2023, the minister launched a forum and an online portal for public consultation on the Open Government National Action Plan 2023-2025. The Office of the Chief Information Officer within the Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (DPER) plays a key role, along with the Information and Governance Standards Section (IGSS) of the central statistics office and the recently developed Civil Service Research Network, chaired by the Department of Further and Higher Education, Innovation, Science and Research.
Citations:
European Commission. 2023. European Public Administration Country Brief 2023 Ireland.
European Commission. 2022. “eGovernment Benchmark 2022, 2021-2022 data.” https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/a7d80ca2-3895-11ed-9c68-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-291321135
European Commission. 2022. “European Data Portal, 2022.” https://data.europa.eu/en/publications/open-data-maturity/2022
Government of Ireland. 2018. “Public Service Data Strategy 2019-2023.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/1d6bc7-public-service-data-strategy-2019-2023
Murphy, G. 2021. “Open Government.” In Policy Analysis in Ireland, eds. J. Hogan and M. P. Murphy, 668-682. Bristol: Policy Press.
Scott, C. 2021. “The Politics of Regulation in Ireland.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D. M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 647-667. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ireland ranks 13th among the EU-27 for government transparency and scores highly for open data maturity (97.2% on open data policy, 86.7% on impact, 97% on the portal and 87.5% on quality). This ranking has remained consistent over the past few years, with no significant changes or pressures for changes in access to government data and publication of assets/income declarations. The roles, remits and data of the Office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (OCAG) and the Ombudsman institutions have remained the same. Recent changes in the accountability architecture include the Policing, Security and Community Safety Bill 2023, which restructures the Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission (GSOC) into a new Office of the Police Ombudsman. Additionally, the responsibility for ethical legislation-related functions has been transferred to the Minister for Public Expenditure, National Development Plan Delivery and Reform (DPENDR). In March 2023, the minister launched a forum and an online portal for public consultation on the Open Government National Action Plan 2023-2025. The Office of the Chief Information Officer within the Department of Public Expenditure and Reform (DPER) plays a key role, along with the Information and Governance Standards Section (IGSS) of the central statistics office and the recently developed Civil Service Research Network, chaired by the Department of Further and Higher Education, Innovation, Science and Research.
Citations:
European Commission. 2023. European Public Administration Country Brief 2023 Ireland.
European Commission. 2022. “eGovernment Benchmark 2022, 2021-2022 data.” https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/a7d80ca2-3895-11ed-9c68-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-291321135
European Commission. 2022. “European Data Portal, 2022.” https://data.europa.eu/en/publications/open-data-maturity/2022
Government of Ireland. 2018. “Public Service Data Strategy 2019-2023.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/1d6bc7-public-service-data-strategy-2019-2023
Murphy, G. 2021. “Open Government.” In Policy Analysis in Ireland, eds. J. Hogan and M. P. Murphy, 668-682. Bristol: Policy Press.
Scott, C. 2021. “The Politics of Regulation in Ireland.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D. M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 647-667. Oxford: Oxford University Press.