Social Sustainability
#9Key Findings
Ireland falls into the upper-middle ranks internationally (rank 9) with regard to social sustainability.
The education system is well funded, but is not well-aligned with labor market needs. Class sizes are large, and the system tends to favor lower-cost fields like liberal arts and law over STEM subjects. The system performs well on the international PISA tests.
The public healthcare system is effective, but features long waiting times. Nearly half the population pays for private insurance to receive quicker treatment. The public pension system has adopted incentives for longer work, but does not ensure sufficient income for people in nonstandard employment.
High quality childcare is available for children aged 2 to 5. Affordable childcare below this age is difficult to find, pushing duties to women, grandparents, and community networks. Child poverty rates are comparatively high. Immigration rates have risen, creating challenges related to racism and integration amid expanding far-right sentiments.
The education system is well funded, but is not well-aligned with labor market needs. Class sizes are large, and the system tends to favor lower-cost fields like liberal arts and law over STEM subjects. The system performs well on the international PISA tests.
The public healthcare system is effective, but features long waiting times. Nearly half the population pays for private insurance to receive quicker treatment. The public pension system has adopted incentives for longer work, but does not ensure sufficient income for people in nonstandard employment.
High quality childcare is available for children aged 2 to 5. Affordable childcare below this age is difficult to find, pushing duties to women, grandparents, and community networks. Child poverty rates are comparatively high. Immigration rates have risen, creating challenges related to racism and integration amid expanding far-right sentiments.
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To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
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Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
Education policies and regulations in Ireland largely ensure the provision of necessary financial and human resources, including during crises and transitions, but require further investment (TUI 2023). There is less effective and timely monitoring of labor market demands and insufficient adaptation of education and training programs to provide relevant hands-on skills (see labor market section). Additionally, access to lifelong learning opportunities is inadequate, though there has been a shift in 2023 to support part-time education. There are significant skills shortages at the primary and secondary levels in specific STEM and language subjects, prompting strategies to recruit Irish returnees and other teachers from abroad. Education for sustainable development is integrated into primary and secondary curricula, with a new Leaving Certificate subject launched in 2023, but it is not prevalent in most third-level courses despite campaigns for such education.
Class sizes tend to be large, and the education system is somewhat biased toward lower-cost areas, such as liberal arts, law and business studies, rather than higher-cost areas, such as engineering and science. PISA evidence indicates that the Irish education system is above average by OECD and Western European standards. The most frequently voiced concerns relate to levels of mathematical skills (not reflected in outcome data), lack of proficiency in foreign languages, and an overemphasis on the Irish language (and religion) in the primary curriculum. Reform of the Leaving Certificate, the final high school exams coordinated nationally, has been slow to shift to continuous assessment, partly due to resistance from teachers’ unions and, to some extent, parents.
Citations:
White, J. 2023. “Education budget fails to address ‘big issues’, say teachers unions.” Irish Examiner, October 10. https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/spotlight/arid-41245153.html
McCoy, S. 2022. “Inequalities in Educational Outcomes: Insights from the Latest Research.” National Association of Principals and Deputy Principals. https://www.esri.ie/publications/inequalities-in-educational-outcomes-insights-from-the-latest-research
Class sizes tend to be large, and the education system is somewhat biased toward lower-cost areas, such as liberal arts, law and business studies, rather than higher-cost areas, such as engineering and science. PISA evidence indicates that the Irish education system is above average by OECD and Western European standards. The most frequently voiced concerns relate to levels of mathematical skills (not reflected in outcome data), lack of proficiency in foreign languages, and an overemphasis on the Irish language (and religion) in the primary curriculum. Reform of the Leaving Certificate, the final high school exams coordinated nationally, has been slow to shift to continuous assessment, partly due to resistance from teachers’ unions and, to some extent, parents.
Citations:
White, J. 2023. “Education budget fails to address ‘big issues’, say teachers unions.” Irish Examiner, October 10. https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/spotlight/arid-41245153.html
McCoy, S. 2022. “Inequalities in Educational Outcomes: Insights from the Latest Research.” National Association of Principals and Deputy Principals. https://www.esri.ie/publications/inequalities-in-educational-outcomes-insights-from-the-latest-research
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
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Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
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Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
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4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
The Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme provides early childhood care and education for children of preschool age, including a specific program for access and inclusion. Children can start ECCE at 2 years and 8 months of age and continue until they transfer to primary school, provided they are not older than 5 years and 6 months at the end of the preschool year. This scheme ensures access to a part-time early childhood development program that prepares children for primary school, with very high take-up rates. However, policy concerning access to earlier forms of childcare is limited, and overall investment in pre-primary education remains low relative to equivalent jurisdictions in Europe.
The education system generally seeks to ensure access to all levels of education for all, regardless of socioeconomic background. However, class issues (increasingly combined with ethnicity) affect the quality and equality of children’s educational experiences. There is an uneven distribution of need that is not always compensated by targeted policies such as DEIS (Delivering Equality of Education in Schools). Progress up the educational scale is correlated with social class. The secondary education system has a two-tier structure, with about 10% of pupils attending fee-paying schools. These schools, which charge up to €6,000 per pupil per year, are socially exclusive, achieve higher academic results, and have higher progression rates to tertiary education than non-fee-paying schools. This perpetuates inequality and lacks transparent and equitable entry criteria. National monitoring of Graduate Outcomes and Socioeconomic Status has highlighted inequality in third-level attainment, with almost one in five graduates from 2020 coming from affluent backgrounds and fewer than one in 10 from disadvantaged backgrounds (HEA 2020a).
The National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access, Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028 (HEA 2020b) focuses on students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged, students with disabilities, and students from the Irish Traveller community. It also targets specific cohorts of underrepresented or marginalized students, including mature students from disadvantaged areas, students with intellectual disabilities, members of the Roma community, those with experience in the care system, homelessness, the criminal justice system, survivors of domestic violence, students who are carers, “second-chance” mature students, migrants and refugees. Irish students at tertiary institutions are not charged fees for most undergraduate courses but do pay a “student contribution.” Following the 2022 budget, a significant increase in higher education spending was announced, and the €3,000 contribution will be reduced to €2,000 over several budgets. However, significant accommodation and transport costs remain barriers for third-level students.
The education system does provide second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low levels of skills upon leaving education. However, means testing of second-chance adult education supports, an over-focus on labor market or vocational-oriented education, the absence of comprehensive adult education guidance, and a lack of other supports, including care and transport, can limit meaningful access.
Citations:
DEIS. 2020. “DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity In Schools.” https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/4018ea-deis-delivering-equality-of-opportunity-in-schools/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020a. “Graduate Outcomes and Socio-Economic Status Report.” https://hea.ie/statistics/graduate-outcomes-data-and-reports/graduate-outcomes-for-access-groups/2-foreword-gosdis-2020/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020b. “National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028.” Government of Ireland. https://hea.ie/assets/uploads/2022/12/National-Access-Plan-2022-2028-FINAL.pdfquality+education+and+training+ireland
O’Sullivan, K., Byrne, D., Robson, J., and Winters, N. 2019. “Who Goes to College via Access Routes? A Comparative Study of Widening Participation Admission in Selective Universities in Ireland and England.” Social Inclusion 7 (1): 38-51.
Teachers Union Ireland. 2023. “News Bulletin.” 45 (6): 9. Dublin: TUI.
The education system generally seeks to ensure access to all levels of education for all, regardless of socioeconomic background. However, class issues (increasingly combined with ethnicity) affect the quality and equality of children’s educational experiences. There is an uneven distribution of need that is not always compensated by targeted policies such as DEIS (Delivering Equality of Education in Schools). Progress up the educational scale is correlated with social class. The secondary education system has a two-tier structure, with about 10% of pupils attending fee-paying schools. These schools, which charge up to €6,000 per pupil per year, are socially exclusive, achieve higher academic results, and have higher progression rates to tertiary education than non-fee-paying schools. This perpetuates inequality and lacks transparent and equitable entry criteria. National monitoring of Graduate Outcomes and Socioeconomic Status has highlighted inequality in third-level attainment, with almost one in five graduates from 2020 coming from affluent backgrounds and fewer than one in 10 from disadvantaged backgrounds (HEA 2020a).
The National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access, Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028 (HEA 2020b) focuses on students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged, students with disabilities, and students from the Irish Traveller community. It also targets specific cohorts of underrepresented or marginalized students, including mature students from disadvantaged areas, students with intellectual disabilities, members of the Roma community, those with experience in the care system, homelessness, the criminal justice system, survivors of domestic violence, students who are carers, “second-chance” mature students, migrants and refugees. Irish students at tertiary institutions are not charged fees for most undergraduate courses but do pay a “student contribution.” Following the 2022 budget, a significant increase in higher education spending was announced, and the €3,000 contribution will be reduced to €2,000 over several budgets. However, significant accommodation and transport costs remain barriers for third-level students.
The education system does provide second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low levels of skills upon leaving education. However, means testing of second-chance adult education supports, an over-focus on labor market or vocational-oriented education, the absence of comprehensive adult education guidance, and a lack of other supports, including care and transport, can limit meaningful access.
Citations:
DEIS. 2020. “DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity In Schools.” https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/4018ea-deis-delivering-equality-of-opportunity-in-schools/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020a. “Graduate Outcomes and Socio-Economic Status Report.” https://hea.ie/statistics/graduate-outcomes-data-and-reports/graduate-outcomes-for-access-groups/2-foreword-gosdis-2020/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020b. “National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028.” Government of Ireland. https://hea.ie/assets/uploads/2022/12/National-Access-Plan-2022-2028-FINAL.pdfquality+education+and+training+ireland
O’Sullivan, K., Byrne, D., Robson, J., and Winters, N. 2019. “Who Goes to College via Access Routes? A Comparative Study of Widening Participation Admission in Selective Universities in Ireland and England.” Social Inclusion 7 (1): 38-51.
Teachers Union Ireland. 2023. “News Bulletin.” 45 (6): 9. Dublin: TUI.
Graph View
To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
Ireland scores highly on the Human Development Index (UNHDI), yet many citizens struggle to exercise basic rights to housing, health and care services. Data on poverty in recent years is complex, influenced by pandemic income support experiences. Overall, outcome data and performance indicators show that Ireland’s welfare efforts result in average poverty and deprivation outcomes relative to other EU states, with marked improvement from the crisis period of 2008-2014. The latest (2022) Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC) shows relatively positive results for poverty and inequality but highlights significant disparities for people with disabilities and lone parents, who face the highest risk of all forms of poverty and deprivation. Renters, both private and social, also face high risks. The long-term underdevelopment of public services leads to a reliance on costly subsidies and tax reliefs to enable the purchase of private market services (in pensions, care, housing, education, and health), which primarily benefit the middle classes (Murphy 2023). Roantree et al. (2022) found that measures of income poverty and material deprivation in Ireland indicate a high incidence of low living standards, persistent in certain groups and social and geographical pockets, including children, lone parents, and adults in jobless households.
Women, single-parent households, people living alone, immigrants/non-Irish, unemployed people, households with lower incomes, households in rented accommodation and people with long-term illness or disability are more likely to experience inequality across a range of indicators (NESC 2023). Both the OECD and national well-being frameworks show many important indicators of relatively high well-being in Ireland, such as an above-average employment rate, high life satisfaction, low relative income poverty, high educational achievement and a high level of trust in government (NESC 2023).
High market inequality is considerably reduced by an effective tax and transfer system, bringing net inequality close to the EU norm (TASC 2023). Individuals access information about essential services and basic income support through a network of citizens’ information centers. While access to essential services can be difficult, national policies ensure that everyone in need has access to cash transfers. However, targeted subsidies and benefits-in-kind are more challenging to access, particularly housing, with record levels of homelessness and family/child homelessness in 2024. Existing essential public services and basic income support are not always fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need (SJI 2023). Government initiatives in 2022/23 and 2023/24 to support households with cost-of-living pressures through energy subsidies were critiqued as untargeted and excessively costly. There have been sustained campaigns to tackle child poverty by better targeting child income supports. Ireland has pursued a commodified route, making for-profit market delivery central to welfare provision in many areas, including pensions, health, housing and care. This contrasts with a universal basic services approach led by the state and social partnerships.
Citations:
NESC. 2023. Inequality and Well-Being Framework. Report No. 163. Dublin: National Economic and Social Council.
CSO. 2022. Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC). Central Statistics Office.
Murphy, M. P. 2023. Creating an Eco Social Welfare State. Bristol: Policy Press.
TASC. 2023. “TASC Publications.” https://www.tasc.ie/publications/
Social Justice Ireland. 2023. “Budget 2024 Analysis and Critique.” https://www.socialjustice.ie/publication/budget-2024-analysis-and-critique
Roantree, B., et al. 2022. “Poverty, Income Inequality and Living Standards in Ireland: Second Annual Report.” https://www.esri.ie/publications/poverty-income-inequalityand-living-standards-in-ireland-second-annual-report
Women, single-parent households, people living alone, immigrants/non-Irish, unemployed people, households with lower incomes, households in rented accommodation and people with long-term illness or disability are more likely to experience inequality across a range of indicators (NESC 2023). Both the OECD and national well-being frameworks show many important indicators of relatively high well-being in Ireland, such as an above-average employment rate, high life satisfaction, low relative income poverty, high educational achievement and a high level of trust in government (NESC 2023).
High market inequality is considerably reduced by an effective tax and transfer system, bringing net inequality close to the EU norm (TASC 2023). Individuals access information about essential services and basic income support through a network of citizens’ information centers. While access to essential services can be difficult, national policies ensure that everyone in need has access to cash transfers. However, targeted subsidies and benefits-in-kind are more challenging to access, particularly housing, with record levels of homelessness and family/child homelessness in 2024. Existing essential public services and basic income support are not always fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need (SJI 2023). Government initiatives in 2022/23 and 2023/24 to support households with cost-of-living pressures through energy subsidies were critiqued as untargeted and excessively costly. There have been sustained campaigns to tackle child poverty by better targeting child income supports. Ireland has pursued a commodified route, making for-profit market delivery central to welfare provision in many areas, including pensions, health, housing and care. This contrasts with a universal basic services approach led by the state and social partnerships.
Citations:
NESC. 2023. Inequality and Well-Being Framework. Report No. 163. Dublin: National Economic and Social Council.
CSO. 2022. Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC). Central Statistics Office.
Murphy, M. P. 2023. Creating an Eco Social Welfare State. Bristol: Policy Press.
TASC. 2023. “TASC Publications.” https://www.tasc.ie/publications/
Social Justice Ireland. 2023. “Budget 2024 Analysis and Critique.” https://www.socialjustice.ie/publication/budget-2024-analysis-and-critique
Roantree, B., et al. 2022. “Poverty, Income Inequality and Living Standards in Ireland: Second Annual Report.” https://www.esri.ie/publications/poverty-income-inequalityand-living-standards-in-ireland-second-annual-report
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
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1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
Ireland has historically underinvested in public services, leading to issues with both quantity and quality. While there has been some catch-up in the last two decades, with access targets set in a national action plan against poverty and individual sectoral plans, there is less focus on the quality of service delivery. Despite this, there is a sense of general improvement, digitalization and an embedding of a customer service culture. The main issues for many still concern access rather than the quality of services accessed. The basic income support system is effective and efficient, but capacity issues often stall policy innovation due to fears of IT collapse if overloaded. There is a premium on the effective delivery of weekly payments in a clientelistic political system where politicians often claim “success” for delivering public services and income supports, although this is changing culturally.
Specific quality issues include damp social housing, water quality (with boil water notices and rural E. coli contamination), and energy costs (with pressures to self-disconnect by not filling prepaid meters or choosing between water and food). In public transport and digital infrastructure, such as rural broadband, there are specific access issues for rural households. Policy is also seeking to improve access to financial services, such as banking, cheap credit and mortgages. MABS (the Money Advice and Budgeting Services) provides debt relief services, and there has been regulatory reform regarding indebtedness.
The income support system comprises means-tested, social insurance, and age-specific universal payments. Strong arguments exist for reforming child income support to better target child poverty and low-income families, as well as for universal pensions. In working-age payments, there has been a structural shift to means-tested payments, with demands to shift back to non-means-tested payments and reintroduce pay-related social insurance payments. The largest issue appears to be adequacy rather than targeting per se, although various commissions have argued for more tapered payments to enable life transitions, effectively arguing against overly precise targeting (CTW 2023). The same report also called for more revenue-gathering mechanisms to meet future needs.
Citations:
DSP. 2022. Statistical Report 2022. Dublin: Department of Social Protection. https://www.gov.ie/pdf/?file=https://assets.gov.ie/262944/3bdd325b-db94-4daf-90c3-b6c00682a7d9.pdf#page=null
Murphy, M. P. 2023. Creating an Eco Social Welfare State. Bristol: Policy Press.
Commission on Tax and Welfare. 2023. “Foundations for the Future.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/7fbeb-report-of-the-commission/
Specific quality issues include damp social housing, water quality (with boil water notices and rural E. coli contamination), and energy costs (with pressures to self-disconnect by not filling prepaid meters or choosing between water and food). In public transport and digital infrastructure, such as rural broadband, there are specific access issues for rural households. Policy is also seeking to improve access to financial services, such as banking, cheap credit and mortgages. MABS (the Money Advice and Budgeting Services) provides debt relief services, and there has been regulatory reform regarding indebtedness.
The income support system comprises means-tested, social insurance, and age-specific universal payments. Strong arguments exist for reforming child income support to better target child poverty and low-income families, as well as for universal pensions. In working-age payments, there has been a structural shift to means-tested payments, with demands to shift back to non-means-tested payments and reintroduce pay-related social insurance payments. The largest issue appears to be adequacy rather than targeting per se, although various commissions have argued for more tapered payments to enable life transitions, effectively arguing against overly precise targeting (CTW 2023). The same report also called for more revenue-gathering mechanisms to meet future needs.
Citations:
DSP. 2022. Statistical Report 2022. Dublin: Department of Social Protection. https://www.gov.ie/pdf/?file=https://assets.gov.ie/262944/3bdd325b-db94-4daf-90c3-b6c00682a7d9.pdf#page=null
Murphy, M. P. 2023. Creating an Eco Social Welfare State. Bristol: Policy Press.
Commission on Tax and Welfare. 2023. “Foundations for the Future.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/7fbeb-report-of-the-commission/
Graph View
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
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Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
The public healthcare system in Ireland is regarded as effective once accessed, but issues such as long waiting lists, negligence, and incompetence contribute to negative perceptions. Key pieces of health infrastructure, including the National Children’s Hospital, have faced considerable delays and budget increases. The lack of access to hospital care is frequently highlighted in the media, especially by the Irish Nurses and Midwives Organisation, which campaigns for better staffing, working conditions and patient outcomes.
Government spending on healthcare reached a record €21 billion in 2022, which is considered costly given the favorable age structure of the population. However, health spending per capita was similar to the EU average in 2021 (OECD 2023). Concerns about continuing overruns in healthcare spending are common (IFAC 2022/23). Revenue buoyancy linked to volatile corporate tax returns enables the government to absorb healthcare overruns in the short term. However, resilience is vulnerable due to an over-reliance on 14 private operators who control 40% of nursing home beds, mostly in the greater Dublin region. There have been 700 recent public bed losses and the closure of 50 private nursing homes (Pepper 2023, ESRI 2023). Elder care is difficult to access, particularly in rural areas. While the home-based care scheme offers resilience, its implementation has been slow (ESRI 2023). Elective surgery waiting lists are being addressed through purchase-abroad schemes (EU) and bilateral arrangements with the UK. Transparency is increasing, with monthly data on waiting lists now published by the Health Service Executive (HSE), making the monitoring of waiting times a political priority.
Pre-COVID-19, Ireland had begun a 10-year program of reform, Sláintecare, aimed at delivering universal, timely access to integrated care. Burke et al. (2021) explain how the Irish government’s pandemic response contributed to health system reform and increased resilience, including delivering universal healthcare. Both policy intent and funding were directed to manage the COVID-19 crisis in Ireland and to build health system resilience.
Citations:
CSO. 2023. Irish Health Survey 2019. Dublin: Central Statistics Office.
INMO. 2023. “ED Trolley Watch/Ward Watch Figures below for January 26th 2024.” https://www.inmo.ie/Trolley_Ward_Watch
Pepper, D. 2023. “‘Trend’ of nursing home closures mostly impacting rural areas, as 50 close over four-year period.” The Journal, December 14. https://www.thejournal.ie/hiqa-report-nursing-home-closures-rural-areas-6249470-Dec2023/#:~:text=FIFTY%20NURSING%20HOMES%20have%20closed,and%20Quality%20Authority%20(HIQA)
Walsh, B., and S. Connolly. 2024. “Long-term Residential Care in Ireland: Developments Since the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic.” ESRI Research Series 174. https://www.esri.ie/system/files/publications/RS174.pdf
Burke, S., Parker, S., Fleming, P., Barry, S., and Thomas, S. 2021. “Building Health System Resilience through Policy Development in Response to COVID-19 in Ireland: From Shock to Reform.” The Lancet Regional Health–Europe 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100223
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Ireland Country Health Profile 2023.” https://read.oecd.org/10.1787/3abe906b-en?format=pdf
Government spending on healthcare reached a record €21 billion in 2022, which is considered costly given the favorable age structure of the population. However, health spending per capita was similar to the EU average in 2021 (OECD 2023). Concerns about continuing overruns in healthcare spending are common (IFAC 2022/23). Revenue buoyancy linked to volatile corporate tax returns enables the government to absorb healthcare overruns in the short term. However, resilience is vulnerable due to an over-reliance on 14 private operators who control 40% of nursing home beds, mostly in the greater Dublin region. There have been 700 recent public bed losses and the closure of 50 private nursing homes (Pepper 2023, ESRI 2023). Elder care is difficult to access, particularly in rural areas. While the home-based care scheme offers resilience, its implementation has been slow (ESRI 2023). Elective surgery waiting lists are being addressed through purchase-abroad schemes (EU) and bilateral arrangements with the UK. Transparency is increasing, with monthly data on waiting lists now published by the Health Service Executive (HSE), making the monitoring of waiting times a political priority.
Pre-COVID-19, Ireland had begun a 10-year program of reform, Sláintecare, aimed at delivering universal, timely access to integrated care. Burke et al. (2021) explain how the Irish government’s pandemic response contributed to health system reform and increased resilience, including delivering universal healthcare. Both policy intent and funding were directed to manage the COVID-19 crisis in Ireland and to build health system resilience.
Citations:
CSO. 2023. Irish Health Survey 2019. Dublin: Central Statistics Office.
INMO. 2023. “ED Trolley Watch/Ward Watch Figures below for January 26th 2024.” https://www.inmo.ie/Trolley_Ward_Watch
Pepper, D. 2023. “‘Trend’ of nursing home closures mostly impacting rural areas, as 50 close over four-year period.” The Journal, December 14. https://www.thejournal.ie/hiqa-report-nursing-home-closures-rural-areas-6249470-Dec2023/#:~:text=FIFTY%20NURSING%20HOMES%20have%20closed,and%20Quality%20Authority%20(HIQA)
Walsh, B., and S. Connolly. 2024. “Long-term Residential Care in Ireland: Developments Since the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic.” ESRI Research Series 174. https://www.esri.ie/system/files/publications/RS174.pdf
Burke, S., Parker, S., Fleming, P., Barry, S., and Thomas, S. 2021. “Building Health System Resilience through Policy Development in Response to COVID-19 in Ireland: From Shock to Reform.” The Lancet Regional Health–Europe 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100223
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Ireland Country Health Profile 2023.” https://read.oecd.org/10.1787/3abe906b-en?format=pdf
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
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9
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Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
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Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
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1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
Objective indicators of health outcomes in Ireland are relatively good and continue to improve. However, access to healthcare dominates people’s perceptions and reality. Health insurance facilitates access to high-quality and high-technology medical care in private and public-private settings (Connolly 2023). While preventable and treatable mortality rates remain consistently below the EU average, excessively long waiting lists are the primary cause of unmet medical needs. Coverage for publicly funded healthcare in Ireland, though expanding, is not yet universal (OECD 2023). The OECD also notes that Ireland had an effective vaccination rollout, which reduced COVID-19 mortality.
The Health Service Executive (HSE 2020) has laid out a plan for integrated care and support for people with chronic ill health to live well within the community. This plan focuses on keeping people at home with ready and equitable access to general practitioner reviews, diagnostics, health and social care professional input, and specialist opinions as required. The Integrated Care Programme for the Prevention and Management of Chronic Disease aims to prevent and manage chronic disease and associated complications through education sessions, goal-setting, and action plans. The program supports chronic disease management at home, progressing through levels of care from general practitioners in Community Healthcare Networks to a Chronic Disease Management Programme in general practitioner services, and finally to community specialist ambulatory care for diagnostics, pulmonary and cardiac rehabilitation and diabetes management.
Level 3 involves acute specialist ambulatory care with services such as respiratory outreach, while Level 4 provides specialist hospital care for complex issues. Implementation has been uneven, with the absence of integrated home care packages (both in policy and practice) as a major obstacle, indicating a lack of integration governance. The Health Service Executive’s governance and financial management structures are a constant focus for reform, and labor shortages present significant challenges.
Outcome data for healthy life expectancy at birth show Ireland ranked joint 8th at 71 years, compared to the average of 70.4 years, with non-healthy life expectancy reaching 85 years for Irish women. Irish men are considered less proactive about preventative care.
Policies and regulations have been slow to foster investment in digital infrastructure, resulting in some poor investment outcomes. However, the transition to ehealth has accelerated during the pandemic, with improvements in the utilization of health data to monitor emerging threats and accurately assess public health matters. More effort is needed to disaggregate data across equality grounds. The government is implementing measures to offset rising costs caused by an aging population, advance medical technology, and utilize step-down beds in nursing homes and other convalescent and elder social care settings, but progress is variable.
Citations:
Connolly, S. 2023. “Improving Access to Healthcare in Ireland: An Implementation Failure.” Health Economics, Policy and Law First View: 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744133123000130
Health Service Executive (HSE). 2020. National Framework for the Integrated Prevention and Management of Chronic Disease in Ireland 2020 – 2025. https://www.hse.ie/eng/about/who/cspd/icp/chronic-disease/documents/national-framework-integrated-care.pdf
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Ireland Country Health Profile 2023.” https://read.oecd.org/10.1787/3abe906b-en?format=pdf
The Health Service Executive (HSE 2020) has laid out a plan for integrated care and support for people with chronic ill health to live well within the community. This plan focuses on keeping people at home with ready and equitable access to general practitioner reviews, diagnostics, health and social care professional input, and specialist opinions as required. The Integrated Care Programme for the Prevention and Management of Chronic Disease aims to prevent and manage chronic disease and associated complications through education sessions, goal-setting, and action plans. The program supports chronic disease management at home, progressing through levels of care from general practitioners in Community Healthcare Networks to a Chronic Disease Management Programme in general practitioner services, and finally to community specialist ambulatory care for diagnostics, pulmonary and cardiac rehabilitation and diabetes management.
Level 3 involves acute specialist ambulatory care with services such as respiratory outreach, while Level 4 provides specialist hospital care for complex issues. Implementation has been uneven, with the absence of integrated home care packages (both in policy and practice) as a major obstacle, indicating a lack of integration governance. The Health Service Executive’s governance and financial management structures are a constant focus for reform, and labor shortages present significant challenges.
Outcome data for healthy life expectancy at birth show Ireland ranked joint 8th at 71 years, compared to the average of 70.4 years, with non-healthy life expectancy reaching 85 years for Irish women. Irish men are considered less proactive about preventative care.
Policies and regulations have been slow to foster investment in digital infrastructure, resulting in some poor investment outcomes. However, the transition to ehealth has accelerated during the pandemic, with improvements in the utilization of health data to monitor emerging threats and accurately assess public health matters. More effort is needed to disaggregate data across equality grounds. The government is implementing measures to offset rising costs caused by an aging population, advance medical technology, and utilize step-down beds in nursing homes and other convalescent and elder social care settings, but progress is variable.
Citations:
Connolly, S. 2023. “Improving Access to Healthcare in Ireland: An Implementation Failure.” Health Economics, Policy and Law First View: 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744133123000130
Health Service Executive (HSE). 2020. National Framework for the Integrated Prevention and Management of Chronic Disease in Ireland 2020 – 2025. https://www.hse.ie/eng/about/who/cspd/icp/chronic-disease/documents/national-framework-integrated-care.pdf
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Ireland Country Health Profile 2023.” https://read.oecd.org/10.1787/3abe906b-en?format=pdf
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
Connolly (2023) finds that high user charges, long waits and limited availability of some services characterize Irish healthcare, and that the implementation of reform proposals aimed at improving access to healthcare is limited. The Irish healthcare system is two-tiered, with 51% relying exclusively on the public healthcare system and 49% paying for costly private insurance to obtain quicker access to hospital treatment. This has led to reductions in private insurance coverage and issues relating to the transparency of pricing and benefits (Irish Times 2023).
Sláintecare, a cross-party 10-year plan (Burke et al. 2023), aims to make healthcare universal but has faced significant delays in implementation, obstruction by elite medical interests and a lack of political commitment. The 2023 action plan – the last phase – outlines Sláintecare and Programme for Government priorities, including improving access, outcomes and affordability for patients by increasing the capacity and effectiveness of the workforce, infrastructure and delivery of patient care. Key measures include public-only consultant contracts to remove private care from public hospitals, implementing the Waiting List Action Plan 2023, shifting to enhanced community care to provide health services closer to people’s homes and reduce pressure on acute hospitals and establishing new elective hospitals and surgical hubs. Plans also include key digital and eHealth solutions, a new Digital Health Strategic Framework and governance shifts and realignments. However, the record of implementation is poor, and expectations are low that all of this will be delivered.
The OECD (2023) notes differences in healthcare accessibility across income groups, with 3.2% of those in the lowest income quintile reporting unmet medical needs due to waiting times, compared to 1.1% in the highest income quintile. The OECD also notes that the design of Ireland’s healthcare system is unusual within the EU in not providing universal health coverage for all residents, with excessively long waiting lists being the primary cause of unmet medical needs. Additionally, the limited capacity of public hospitals hinders timely access to services.
Citations:
Burke, S., Thomas, S., and Johnston, B. 2023. “Joint Committee on Health Submission Sláinte Care’s Implementation Path.” https://data.oireachtas.ie/ie/oireachtas/committee/dail/33/joint_committee_on_health/submissions/2023/2023-03-01_opening-statement-dr-sara-burke-associate-professor-in-health-policy-and-management-centre-for-health-policy-and-management-trinity-college-dublin_en.pdf
Irish Times. 2023. “New health insurance increases to add hundreds to annual cost.” The Irish Times March 1.
Burke, S., et al. 2018. “Sláintecare - A Ten-Year Plan to Achieve Universal Healthcare in Ireland.” Health Policy 122 (12): 1278-1282.
Sláintecare Action Plan. 2023. Right Care; Right Place; Right Time. Dublin: Department of Health.
Connolly, S. 2023. “Improving Access to Healthcare in Ireland: An Implementation Failure.” Health Economics, Policy and Law First View: 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744133123000130
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Ireland Country Health Profile 2023.” https://read.oecd.org/10.1787/3abe906b-en?format=pdf
Sláintecare, a cross-party 10-year plan (Burke et al. 2023), aims to make healthcare universal but has faced significant delays in implementation, obstruction by elite medical interests and a lack of political commitment. The 2023 action plan – the last phase – outlines Sláintecare and Programme for Government priorities, including improving access, outcomes and affordability for patients by increasing the capacity and effectiveness of the workforce, infrastructure and delivery of patient care. Key measures include public-only consultant contracts to remove private care from public hospitals, implementing the Waiting List Action Plan 2023, shifting to enhanced community care to provide health services closer to people’s homes and reduce pressure on acute hospitals and establishing new elective hospitals and surgical hubs. Plans also include key digital and eHealth solutions, a new Digital Health Strategic Framework and governance shifts and realignments. However, the record of implementation is poor, and expectations are low that all of this will be delivered.
The OECD (2023) notes differences in healthcare accessibility across income groups, with 3.2% of those in the lowest income quintile reporting unmet medical needs due to waiting times, compared to 1.1% in the highest income quintile. The OECD also notes that the design of Ireland’s healthcare system is unusual within the EU in not providing universal health coverage for all residents, with excessively long waiting lists being the primary cause of unmet medical needs. Additionally, the limited capacity of public hospitals hinders timely access to services.
Citations:
Burke, S., Thomas, S., and Johnston, B. 2023. “Joint Committee on Health Submission Sláinte Care’s Implementation Path.” https://data.oireachtas.ie/ie/oireachtas/committee/dail/33/joint_committee_on_health/submissions/2023/2023-03-01_opening-statement-dr-sara-burke-associate-professor-in-health-policy-and-management-centre-for-health-policy-and-management-trinity-college-dublin_en.pdf
Irish Times. 2023. “New health insurance increases to add hundreds to annual cost.” The Irish Times March 1.
Burke, S., et al. 2018. “Sláintecare - A Ten-Year Plan to Achieve Universal Healthcare in Ireland.” Health Policy 122 (12): 1278-1282.
Sláintecare Action Plan. 2023. Right Care; Right Place; Right Time. Dublin: Department of Health.
Connolly, S. 2023. “Improving Access to Healthcare in Ireland: An Implementation Failure.” Health Economics, Policy and Law First View: 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744133123000130
OECD. 2023. “State of Health in the EU Ireland Country Health Profile 2023.” https://read.oecd.org/10.1787/3abe906b-en?format=pdf
Graph View
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
10
9
9
The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
2
1
1
The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
The National Strategy for Women and Girls 2017–2020: Creating a Better Society for All had clearly defined goals but lacked specific target values, binding legislation and costing. It has not been updated, reflecting an inconsistent approach to gender equality, with data sometimes showing both decreases in progress and advancements. On a positive note, the Domestic, Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Agency (DSGBV) Bill (2023) established a national unit called “Cuan” (harbor or haven) to coordinate government actions against DSGBV, including delivering services to victims and providing emergency accommodation. The agency’s remit includes psychological violence, with successful prosecutions under coercive control legislation.
The 2021 Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality recommended a constitutional referendum to reframe Article 41.2 of the 1937 Irish constitution, which ascribes to women a special role in providing care in the home. This recommendation was reinforced by the Oireachtas (Parliamentary) Committee on Gender Equality. Care equality was identified as the greatest obstacle to gender equality. The over-marketization of care results in 70% of childcare and 85% of elder care being delivered through the private for-profit market. The absence of affordable public childcare leans heavily on reciprocity within households, with women, grandparents, and informal community networks performing largely unpaid care work. While policy has advanced in recent years, serious access and affordability issues remain, especially in infant care.
The progressive structure of the income tax code implies that at relatively modest income levels, the second partner entering paid employment faces high marginal income tax rates. Ireland’s male breadwinner–gendered welfare and tax system assigns many women dependent status. Lone parents (with children over 7) are pushed to seek full-time work with little exception for care responsibilities in the context of poor public childcare provision.
There are partially successful measures to promote women’s and girls’ participation, equal opportunities, and empowerment in education and labor markets, such as in STEM, apprenticeships, and professorial positions in sectors lacking gender balance (e.g., SALI professors). A gender candidate quota is in place to address women’s participation in political life, with only voluntary measures to address obstacles to women’s participation in senior business positions. This contrasts with a statutory 40% requirement for either gender on state boards. Policies including paid paternity leave and access to remote working could enhance men’s participation and equal opportunities in caregiving. A constitutional amendment valuing care and family diversity is scheduled for March 8, 2024, and is championed as crucial to gender equality by the National Women’s Council in Ireland. However, other tax and welfare policies perpetuate male breadwinner gendered inequalities. The lead unit for gender equality policy is the Equality Unit in the Department of Justice, which coordinates efforts across up to eight government departments and multiple agencies and units. Structures include high-level oversight boards and cabinet subcommittees on social inclusion for interministerial policy coordination. A lack of disaggregated data limits the capacity to measure progress effectively.
Citations:
Galligan, Y. 2021. “Gender Equality Politics.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D.M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 57-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Houses of the Oireachtas. 2023. “Domestic, Sexual and Gender Based Violence Agency Bill.” https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/bills/bill/2023/67
NWC. 2023. “Submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women.” https://www.nwci.ie/learn/publication/submission_to_the_committee_on_the_elimination_of_discrimination_against_wo
The Citizens’ Assembly. 2021. “Citizen’s Assembly on Gender Equality Report.” https://citizensassembly.ie/overview-previous-assemblies/assembly-on-gender-equality/
The 2021 Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality recommended a constitutional referendum to reframe Article 41.2 of the 1937 Irish constitution, which ascribes to women a special role in providing care in the home. This recommendation was reinforced by the Oireachtas (Parliamentary) Committee on Gender Equality. Care equality was identified as the greatest obstacle to gender equality. The over-marketization of care results in 70% of childcare and 85% of elder care being delivered through the private for-profit market. The absence of affordable public childcare leans heavily on reciprocity within households, with women, grandparents, and informal community networks performing largely unpaid care work. While policy has advanced in recent years, serious access and affordability issues remain, especially in infant care.
The progressive structure of the income tax code implies that at relatively modest income levels, the second partner entering paid employment faces high marginal income tax rates. Ireland’s male breadwinner–gendered welfare and tax system assigns many women dependent status. Lone parents (with children over 7) are pushed to seek full-time work with little exception for care responsibilities in the context of poor public childcare provision.
There are partially successful measures to promote women’s and girls’ participation, equal opportunities, and empowerment in education and labor markets, such as in STEM, apprenticeships, and professorial positions in sectors lacking gender balance (e.g., SALI professors). A gender candidate quota is in place to address women’s participation in political life, with only voluntary measures to address obstacles to women’s participation in senior business positions. This contrasts with a statutory 40% requirement for either gender on state boards. Policies including paid paternity leave and access to remote working could enhance men’s participation and equal opportunities in caregiving. A constitutional amendment valuing care and family diversity is scheduled for March 8, 2024, and is championed as crucial to gender equality by the National Women’s Council in Ireland. However, other tax and welfare policies perpetuate male breadwinner gendered inequalities. The lead unit for gender equality policy is the Equality Unit in the Department of Justice, which coordinates efforts across up to eight government departments and multiple agencies and units. Structures include high-level oversight boards and cabinet subcommittees on social inclusion for interministerial policy coordination. A lack of disaggregated data limits the capacity to measure progress effectively.
Citations:
Galligan, Y. 2021. “Gender Equality Politics.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D.M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 57-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Houses of the Oireachtas. 2023. “Domestic, Sexual and Gender Based Violence Agency Bill.” https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/bills/bill/2023/67
NWC. 2023. “Submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women.” https://www.nwci.ie/learn/publication/submission_to_the_committee_on_the_elimination_of_discrimination_against_wo
The Citizens’ Assembly. 2021. “Citizen’s Assembly on Gender Equality Report.” https://citizensassembly.ie/overview-previous-assemblies/assembly-on-gender-equality/
Graph View
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
10
9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
8
7
6
7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
4
3
4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
The family support system in Ireland includes maternity and paternity leave systems consistent with WHO guidelines. Parents can access paid leave to care for sick children and elderly family members through the insurance-based Carers Benefit and a means-tested Carers Allowance, predominantly claimed by women. The system ensures universal access to affordable, accessible, and high-quality childcare for children aged 2-5, although this is not full-time. In practice, maternal employment rates drop significantly with the birth of the first and particularly the second child due to the inaccessibility and unaffordability of early-years childcare, which is the highest in the OECD for lone parents and the second highest for two-children families. Policies and regulations provide financial support primarily through universal monthly child benefits for all children, child supplements for families dependent on social welfare, and working family dividends to supplement low pay for working families. These supports are provided through the social welfare system rather than the tax system (CTW 2023). While these measures maintain economic stability for families, high levels of child poverty persist. However, fertility rates in Ireland (1.8) are relatively high compared to other EU countries, reflecting a cultural orientation toward having children. In 2022, the DoT established a priority coordination unit to tackle high levels of child poverty, but no significant policy actions or outcomes have yet been forthcoming.
Citations:
Commission on Tax and Welfare. 2023. “Foundations for the Future.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/7fbeb-report-of-the-commission
Citations:
Commission on Tax and Welfare. 2023. “Foundations for the Future.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/7fbeb-report-of-the-commission
Graph View
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
The family means-testing system in Ireland is onerous. Many families fail to pass the full test, and the rules do not promote shared responsibility within households, leaving care primarily a gendered phenomenon and locking many women out of paid employment, which leads to pension gaps.
The central statistics office found that cost-of-living increases marginally disproportionately negatively impact older households. The number of people aged 65 and older living below the poverty line in 2022 increased by 55,000 compared to the previous year, with evidence of increased vulnerability, including more older people using emergency homeless accommodation. Social welfare payments require uplifts of €25 per week to lift people out of poverty. The 2022 Pensions Commission examined sustainability and eligibility issues in state pensions (one-third of average earnings), recommending further examination of adequacy and benchmarking.
The state pension system does not necessarily ensure an adequate old-age income for individuals in non-standard employment or with interrupted employment biographies (e.g., low-skilled, self-employed individuals, long-term unemployed, single parents, chronically ill individuals, or those with a migration background). Means-tested state payments force people to deplete their assets, leaving them vulnerable in old age. Positively, the Commission recommended a 20-year care credit, now operational from January 2024, which is valuable to women seeking access to fuller contributory pensions.
Health and housing needs are particularly lacking, with an urgent need for a home care policy to reduce reliance on expensive institutional care in usually private nursing homes. Housing is also a basic need that is inadequately addressed. Eurostat finds that 13.1% of Ireland’s population aged 65 and older live in inadequate, inappropriate dwellings, with 3,000 older adults lacking their own indoor flushing toilets for the sole use of their household. There have been severe cuts in Housing Aid for Older People and for People with a Disability. Twenty-five percent of older people expect to continue renting into older age, causing high stress.
Citations:
Department of Social Protection (DSP). 2021. “Report of the Commission on Pensions.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/6cb6d-report-of-the-commission-on-pensions/
The central statistics office found that cost-of-living increases marginally disproportionately negatively impact older households. The number of people aged 65 and older living below the poverty line in 2022 increased by 55,000 compared to the previous year, with evidence of increased vulnerability, including more older people using emergency homeless accommodation. Social welfare payments require uplifts of €25 per week to lift people out of poverty. The 2022 Pensions Commission examined sustainability and eligibility issues in state pensions (one-third of average earnings), recommending further examination of adequacy and benchmarking.
The state pension system does not necessarily ensure an adequate old-age income for individuals in non-standard employment or with interrupted employment biographies (e.g., low-skilled, self-employed individuals, long-term unemployed, single parents, chronically ill individuals, or those with a migration background). Means-tested state payments force people to deplete their assets, leaving them vulnerable in old age. Positively, the Commission recommended a 20-year care credit, now operational from January 2024, which is valuable to women seeking access to fuller contributory pensions.
Health and housing needs are particularly lacking, with an urgent need for a home care policy to reduce reliance on expensive institutional care in usually private nursing homes. Housing is also a basic need that is inadequately addressed. Eurostat finds that 13.1% of Ireland’s population aged 65 and older live in inadequate, inappropriate dwellings, with 3,000 older adults lacking their own indoor flushing toilets for the sole use of their household. There have been severe cuts in Housing Aid for Older People and for People with a Disability. Twenty-five percent of older people expect to continue renting into older age, causing high stress.
Citations:
Department of Social Protection (DSP). 2021. “Report of the Commission on Pensions.” https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/6cb6d-report-of-the-commission-on-pensions/
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
As of 2024, the public pension system in Ireland has incentivized individuals to work longer, with limited provisions for exiting before the formal pension age of 66 if work capability is low. There is no specific pre-retirement allowance; individuals must exit to state non-age-specific disability or invalidity schemes, creating gaps between private retirement at 65 and the state pension at 66. The pension system is not realistically funded to guarantee an adequate old-age income in the future. Despite recent policy shifts to fund future pensions, there are serious concerns relating to generational inequity. On average across the OECD, a worker entering the labor market in 2022 will receive a net pension at 61% of net wages, but Ireland is among a group of countries where this figure is 40% or below (OECD 2023). The pension system comprises three pillars: the state old-age pension, occupational pensions and individual pension plans. Changes in the old-age contributory scheme include new qualification criteria and higher state pensions for those who delay accessing pensions between ages 66 and 70 (starting in 2024). Policy will ensure greater access to private pensions through auto-enrollment (commencing in 2024) to encourage earlier entry to private pensions, aiming to increase coverage from 55% of the private workforce.
Generous tax subsidization of private pensions, although costly, un-progressive and a drain on tax revenues, remains a central mechanism to encourage individual investment in private pensions (Collins 2020). Largely contributory rather than defined benefit, private pensions do not necessarily provide full financial security. Public sector employees enjoy relatively generous occupational defined benefit pension entitlements. State and public sector pensions are paid for largely on a pay-as-you-go system, with some recent provisions for a pension fund, creating significant intergenerational inequity in pensions policy. Additionally, there are demographic pressures associated with aging populations and increased dependency ratios.
Citations:
Collins, M. 2020. “Private Pensions and the Gender Distribution of Fiscal Welfare.” Social Policy and Society 19 (3): 500-516.
Kearns, D. 2019. “Oireachtas Committee: ‘Discretionary’ tax relief is costing Ireland 21.4 billion.” February 7.
euros each year. University College Dublin. https://www.ucd.ie/newsandopinion/news/2019/february/7/oireachtascommitteediscretionarytaxreliefiscostingireland214bneachyear/
OECD. 2023. Pensions at a Glance 2023: OECD and G20 Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1787/678055dd-en
Generous tax subsidization of private pensions, although costly, un-progressive and a drain on tax revenues, remains a central mechanism to encourage individual investment in private pensions (Collins 2020). Largely contributory rather than defined benefit, private pensions do not necessarily provide full financial security. Public sector employees enjoy relatively generous occupational defined benefit pension entitlements. State and public sector pensions are paid for largely on a pay-as-you-go system, with some recent provisions for a pension fund, creating significant intergenerational inequity in pensions policy. Additionally, there are demographic pressures associated with aging populations and increased dependency ratios.
Citations:
Collins, M. 2020. “Private Pensions and the Gender Distribution of Fiscal Welfare.” Social Policy and Society 19 (3): 500-516.
Kearns, D. 2019. “Oireachtas Committee: ‘Discretionary’ tax relief is costing Ireland 21.4 billion.” February 7.
euros each year. University College Dublin. https://www.ucd.ie/newsandopinion/news/2019/february/7/oireachtascommitteediscretionarytaxreliefiscostingireland214bneachyear/
OECD. 2023. Pensions at a Glance 2023: OECD and G20 Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1787/678055dd-en
Graph View
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
10
9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Ireland’s population increased to over five million, its highest since 1851, according to Census 2021. Seventeen percent of the population was born abroad, reflecting net inward migration flows over the last 20 years, primarily from EU citizens with the right to reside, work, and own property. The unemployment rate among migrants, especially those from post-2004 EU member states, is higher than among the Irish-born population, with many migrants not employed in occupations commensurate with their skills and education. McGinnity et al. (2023) highlight that foreign-born individuals have both higher employment and unemployment rates, with lower income and higher poverty levels. Immigrants to Ireland have various labor statuses, including international protection and student statuses, and many do not have equal and full access to the labor market. Some work visas still tie employees to a specific employer, and regulations deny access to the labor market completely for the first six months of asylum applications. Historically ethnically homogenous, with the Travelling Community as the only ethnic minority (formally recognized in 2017 and less than 1% of the population), Ireland is now considerably more diverse and facing contemporary challenges of integration and racism.
The country is shifting from an emigration to an immigration culture, experiencing both outflows and inflows. Over 120 nationalities are recorded, and social cohesion is relatively good. However, the recent arrival of up to 100,000 Ukrainians amidst a housing and homelessness crisis has shifted political dynamics. Migration, racism, and integration have become significant issues, with a far-right presence, race riots and arson attacks on accommodations for asylum-seekers marking late 2023 (HCC 2023).
Recognition procedures for skills and qualifications are slow and incomplete. Language courses are not systematically provided early and are often basic, offered by community groups and not facilitating professional development. Professional training programs, mentoring and employer incentives for migrants are limited.
Integration policies offer opportunities for family reunion, but applications are considered individually. Some integration policies provide opportunities for political participation, though these are sporadic. A full political integration program may evolve under the new Electoral Commission. The process for immigrants to obtain citizenship is relatively streamlined and welcoming, with collective national citizenship ceremonies publicly celebrated in national media.
There is a vacuum in government migration policy. The lead unit varies depending on whether the immigration is related to international protection (asylum/refugee status), economic migration, education, or other (family reunion). Multiple units are not effectively coordinated through interministerial policy coordination. Recent incidences of street homelessness among male international protection arrivals in early and late 2023 mark a complete abandonment of the policy to end Direct Provision for international protection applicants (Mahon 2020) and a tightening of conditions for Ukrainian refugees in 2024.
Citations:
Zellentin, A. 2021. “Education for Citizenship in a Changing Country.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D. M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 71-88. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mahon. 2020.
DCEDIY. 2021. “A White Paper to End Direct Provision and to Establish a New International Protection Support Service.” Government of Ireland, February 26.
CSO. 2021. “Population and Migration Estimates.” https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-pme/populationandmigrationestimatesapril2021/mainresults
Lowry, H. 2023. Greater than Fear. Dublin: Hope and Courage Collective.
Government of Ireland. 2023. Understanding Life in Ireland: The Well-being Framework 2023. Dublin: Government of Ireland. https://www.gov.ie/pdf/?file=https://assets.gov.ie/260026/1dc8a216-7cd7-412a-87d3-10dcf0310789.pdf#page=null
McGinnity, F., S. Sprong, E. Quinn, J. Laurence, K. Murphy, and S. Curristan. 2023. Monitoring Report on Integration 2022. Dublin: ESRI and Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth. https://doi.org/10.26504/jr3
The country is shifting from an emigration to an immigration culture, experiencing both outflows and inflows. Over 120 nationalities are recorded, and social cohesion is relatively good. However, the recent arrival of up to 100,000 Ukrainians amidst a housing and homelessness crisis has shifted political dynamics. Migration, racism, and integration have become significant issues, with a far-right presence, race riots and arson attacks on accommodations for asylum-seekers marking late 2023 (HCC 2023).
Recognition procedures for skills and qualifications are slow and incomplete. Language courses are not systematically provided early and are often basic, offered by community groups and not facilitating professional development. Professional training programs, mentoring and employer incentives for migrants are limited.
Integration policies offer opportunities for family reunion, but applications are considered individually. Some integration policies provide opportunities for political participation, though these are sporadic. A full political integration program may evolve under the new Electoral Commission. The process for immigrants to obtain citizenship is relatively streamlined and welcoming, with collective national citizenship ceremonies publicly celebrated in national media.
There is a vacuum in government migration policy. The lead unit varies depending on whether the immigration is related to international protection (asylum/refugee status), economic migration, education, or other (family reunion). Multiple units are not effectively coordinated through interministerial policy coordination. Recent incidences of street homelessness among male international protection arrivals in early and late 2023 mark a complete abandonment of the policy to end Direct Provision for international protection applicants (Mahon 2020) and a tightening of conditions for Ukrainian refugees in 2024.
Citations:
Zellentin, A. 2021. “Education for Citizenship in a Changing Country.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D. M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 71-88. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mahon. 2020.
DCEDIY. 2021. “A White Paper to End Direct Provision and to Establish a New International Protection Support Service.” Government of Ireland, February 26.
CSO. 2021. “Population and Migration Estimates.” https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-pme/populationandmigrationestimatesapril2021/mainresults
Lowry, H. 2023. Greater than Fear. Dublin: Hope and Courage Collective.
Government of Ireland. 2023. Understanding Life in Ireland: The Well-being Framework 2023. Dublin: Government of Ireland. https://www.gov.ie/pdf/?file=https://assets.gov.ie/260026/1dc8a216-7cd7-412a-87d3-10dcf0310789.pdf#page=null
McGinnity, F., S. Sprong, E. Quinn, J. Laurence, K. Murphy, and S. Curristan. 2023. Monitoring Report on Integration 2022. Dublin: ESRI and Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth. https://doi.org/10.26504/jr3
Graph View
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
A clear development strategy and roadmap with defined capacity-building targets for recipient countries is well-embedded in DFA Irish Aid and is considered binding. This strategy guides the allocation of aid investment resources. Irish Aid monitors progress in capacity-building in recipient countries using a range of outcome measurements, with a learning culture aiming to continually expand and improve these indicators. Localization and decolonization are active goals of capacity development.
However, achieving the UN goal of allocating 0.7% of income to Official Development Assistance (ODA) will require increased effort in the coming years. Despite recent budget increases for ODA, Ireland needs to develop an explicit strategy with targets to reach the UN-agreed 0.7% goal. The Department of Foreign Affairs has established an Evaluation and Audit Unit, but its standards and outcomes are not transparent. Indicators and targets are not clearly established in national policy or annual reports, and evaluation reports are difficult to find online.
Irish climate finance is provided publicly on a grant basis, focusing on adaptation and building capacity and resilience in poorer countries. The climate finance plan’s connection with ODA distorts reality on progress in both areas, as the government conflates ODA, Climate Finance, and Loss and Damage into one financial commitment, without separate financial planning to meet the three different commitments made under three different agreements. For instance, Irish Aid’s Climate and Environmental Finance Report 2020 and the Irish International Climate Finance Roadmap indicate that 10% of ODA relates to Climate Finance. However, this is inconsistent with the stated climate financing targets of €225 million by 2025. It is unclear how provision for Ireland’s fair share of the Loss and Damage fund, agreed at COP 27 in 2022, will be financed.
Accounting practices also allow national expenditure on refugee programs to be processed through ODA budgets. The government, through development NGOs and business partnerships, improves access to technology and scientific knowledge to facilitate knowledge-sharing and foster innovation in developing countries, leveraging expertise from Irish-owned MNCs, such as in the agrfood sector. However, such policies can have negative externalities. Contradictions exist in the government’s provision of affordable essential medicines, vaccines and healthcare services (for example, EU policy on vaccine access during the pandemic versus the “People’s Vaccine” campaign). Efforts to recruit, train and retain a sufficient health workforce in Ireland can lead to brain drain in Global South countries.
In ODA terms, Ireland is also focusing on triple nexus issues, including promoting the voices of women peacebuilders, eradicating hunger, addressing children and armed conflict and enhancing conflict prevention and mediation (DFA 2022).
Citations:
DFA. 2022. A Better World: Ireland’s New International Development Policy. Dublin: Department of Foreign Affairs.
SJI. 2023. “ODA, Climate Finance, and Loss and Damage in Budget 2024.” Social Justice Ireland, September 13. https://www.socialjustice.ie/article/oda-climate-finance-and-loss-and-damage-budget-2024
UN. 2022. Human Development Report 2021/22. New York: United Nations Development Programme.
UN. 2023. Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: Towards a Rescue Plan for People and Planet, Advance Unedited Edition. https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/SDG_Progress_Report_Special_Edition_2023
Irish Aid. 2020. “Where the Money Goes.” https://www.irishaid.ie/what-we-do/how-our-aid-works/wherethe-money-goes/
Eurostat. 2023. “SDG Country Overview.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/infographs/sdg-country-overview/
Paul, P. P., and Whelan, C. 2021. “The Changing Nature of Irish International Development Policy.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D. M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 177-194. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
However, achieving the UN goal of allocating 0.7% of income to Official Development Assistance (ODA) will require increased effort in the coming years. Despite recent budget increases for ODA, Ireland needs to develop an explicit strategy with targets to reach the UN-agreed 0.7% goal. The Department of Foreign Affairs has established an Evaluation and Audit Unit, but its standards and outcomes are not transparent. Indicators and targets are not clearly established in national policy or annual reports, and evaluation reports are difficult to find online.
Irish climate finance is provided publicly on a grant basis, focusing on adaptation and building capacity and resilience in poorer countries. The climate finance plan’s connection with ODA distorts reality on progress in both areas, as the government conflates ODA, Climate Finance, and Loss and Damage into one financial commitment, without separate financial planning to meet the three different commitments made under three different agreements. For instance, Irish Aid’s Climate and Environmental Finance Report 2020 and the Irish International Climate Finance Roadmap indicate that 10% of ODA relates to Climate Finance. However, this is inconsistent with the stated climate financing targets of €225 million by 2025. It is unclear how provision for Ireland’s fair share of the Loss and Damage fund, agreed at COP 27 in 2022, will be financed.
Accounting practices also allow national expenditure on refugee programs to be processed through ODA budgets. The government, through development NGOs and business partnerships, improves access to technology and scientific knowledge to facilitate knowledge-sharing and foster innovation in developing countries, leveraging expertise from Irish-owned MNCs, such as in the agrfood sector. However, such policies can have negative externalities. Contradictions exist in the government’s provision of affordable essential medicines, vaccines and healthcare services (for example, EU policy on vaccine access during the pandemic versus the “People’s Vaccine” campaign). Efforts to recruit, train and retain a sufficient health workforce in Ireland can lead to brain drain in Global South countries.
In ODA terms, Ireland is also focusing on triple nexus issues, including promoting the voices of women peacebuilders, eradicating hunger, addressing children and armed conflict and enhancing conflict prevention and mediation (DFA 2022).
Citations:
DFA. 2022. A Better World: Ireland’s New International Development Policy. Dublin: Department of Foreign Affairs.
SJI. 2023. “ODA, Climate Finance, and Loss and Damage in Budget 2024.” Social Justice Ireland, September 13. https://www.socialjustice.ie/article/oda-climate-finance-and-loss-and-damage-budget-2024
UN. 2022. Human Development Report 2021/22. New York: United Nations Development Programme.
UN. 2023. Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals: Towards a Rescue Plan for People and Planet, Advance Unedited Edition. https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/SDG_Progress_Report_Special_Edition_2023
Irish Aid. 2020. “Where the Money Goes.” https://www.irishaid.ie/what-we-do/how-our-aid-works/wherethe-money-goes/
Eurostat. 2023. “SDG Country Overview.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/infographs/sdg-country-overview/
Paul, P. P., and Whelan, C. 2021. “The Changing Nature of Irish International Development Policy.” In The Oxford Handbook of Irish Politics, eds. D. M. Farrell and N. Hardiman, 177-194. Oxford: Oxford University Press.