Social Sustainability
#24Key Findings
In the area of social sustainability, Italy scores relatively poorly (24) in international comparison.
The education system is primary public, with tuition fees charged only at the tertiary level. Expenditure per pupil at all education levels is below the OECD and EU averages. There is a significant divide between northern and southern regions with regard to student preparation, university attendance and learning outcomes.
Italy’s national health system offers universal coverage. Services are generally of medium to high quality, but vary between regions. Wealthier individuals in the south often rely on private healthcare services. Family networks remain the most important instrument of social protection, with families often helping young people afford housing. The poverty rate is rising.
The gender pay gap is low, but employment rates among women are low, with very significant regional variation. Preschool care is often provided by family members. Family policy beyond generous maternity leave provisions is limited. Migration is a tense political issue, with right-wing parties using xenophobic rhetoric. Immigration laws have been repeatedly tightened.
The education system is primary public, with tuition fees charged only at the tertiary level. Expenditure per pupil at all education levels is below the OECD and EU averages. There is a significant divide between northern and southern regions with regard to student preparation, university attendance and learning outcomes.
Italy’s national health system offers universal coverage. Services are generally of medium to high quality, but vary between regions. Wealthier individuals in the south often rely on private healthcare services. Family networks remain the most important instrument of social protection, with families often helping young people afford housing. The poverty rate is rising.
The gender pay gap is low, but employment rates among women are low, with very significant regional variation. Preschool care is often provided by family members. Family policy beyond generous maternity leave provisions is limited. Migration is a tense political issue, with right-wing parties using xenophobic rhetoric. Immigration laws have been repeatedly tightened.
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To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
The Italian education system is predominantly public, administered nationally by the Ministry of Education (MIUR) and the Ministry of Universities and Research (MUR). MIUR oversees school policy, including recruitment and funding, while regional and municipal school authorities control curricula, infrastructure, and resource management. Private education in Italy is limited and primarily consists of religious schools, with a few reputable private universities like Bocconi, LUISS, and Cattolica. MUR coordinates the university system.
In principle, the education system is open to everyone without discrimination, with tuition fees charged only at the tertiary level. Although fees are low compared to Anglo-Saxon systems, they are the second highest in the EU, after the Netherlands. Access to upper secondary and tertiary education has long been socially discriminatory due to limited resources for scholarships and support mechanisms for financially needy students. However, significant funds have been invested in this area since the COVID crisis and thanks to the NRRP, doubling state funding for university scholarships.
Italy falls below the EU average in early school leavers, tertiary attainment, and adult education. Expenditure per pupil at all education levels is below the OECD and EU averages and has remained almost unchanged over the past decade. The education system’s ability to provide skilled workers, especially in specialized fields, is insufficient, often criticized by the private sector.
After a decade of cuts, spending on tertiary education was restored from 2019. The share of education expenditure devoted to salaries of teachers, professors, and technical staff is above average compared to research expenditure, not because salaries are high but due to limited capital and research funds. The selection of school staff is not sufficiently meritocratic. Although there are high-quality education areas at secondary and tertiary levels, overall quality could improve.
The allocation of public resources to universities increasingly includes a mechanism linking funding to research and teaching outcomes, promoting a more competitive and quality-driven higher education system. During the pandemic, the education system was under pressure, with regional differences in handling it. Southern regions were less effective in providing distance learning and had higher school dropout rates (Openpolis).
The Draghi government injected more resources into education with EU Next Generation funding, pledging €31.9 billion to improve all education sectors. The NRPP also provided for various reforms approved for 2022 and 2023, including teacher recruitment, vocational high schools, vocational training institutes, and national guidelines for university degrees. However, a significant divide remains between northern and southern Italy in student preparation and university attractiveness. Although policymakers are aware of this gap, it has widened in recent years, with little action being taken to address it.
Citations:
European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA). 2023. “Country Report, Italy.” https://countryreport.eaea.org/italy#italy-reports-Italy%202023
European Commission. 2022. “Education and Training Monitor 2022: Italy.” https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-2022/en/country-reports/italy.html
In principle, the education system is open to everyone without discrimination, with tuition fees charged only at the tertiary level. Although fees are low compared to Anglo-Saxon systems, they are the second highest in the EU, after the Netherlands. Access to upper secondary and tertiary education has long been socially discriminatory due to limited resources for scholarships and support mechanisms for financially needy students. However, significant funds have been invested in this area since the COVID crisis and thanks to the NRRP, doubling state funding for university scholarships.
Italy falls below the EU average in early school leavers, tertiary attainment, and adult education. Expenditure per pupil at all education levels is below the OECD and EU averages and has remained almost unchanged over the past decade. The education system’s ability to provide skilled workers, especially in specialized fields, is insufficient, often criticized by the private sector.
After a decade of cuts, spending on tertiary education was restored from 2019. The share of education expenditure devoted to salaries of teachers, professors, and technical staff is above average compared to research expenditure, not because salaries are high but due to limited capital and research funds. The selection of school staff is not sufficiently meritocratic. Although there are high-quality education areas at secondary and tertiary levels, overall quality could improve.
The allocation of public resources to universities increasingly includes a mechanism linking funding to research and teaching outcomes, promoting a more competitive and quality-driven higher education system. During the pandemic, the education system was under pressure, with regional differences in handling it. Southern regions were less effective in providing distance learning and had higher school dropout rates (Openpolis).
The Draghi government injected more resources into education with EU Next Generation funding, pledging €31.9 billion to improve all education sectors. The NRPP also provided for various reforms approved for 2022 and 2023, including teacher recruitment, vocational high schools, vocational training institutes, and national guidelines for university degrees. However, a significant divide remains between northern and southern Italy in student preparation and university attractiveness. Although policymakers are aware of this gap, it has widened in recent years, with little action being taken to address it.
Citations:
European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA). 2023. “Country Report, Italy.” https://countryreport.eaea.org/italy#italy-reports-Italy%202023
European Commission. 2022. “Education and Training Monitor 2022: Italy.” https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-2022/en/country-reports/italy.html
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
Equity in education in Italy is a double-edged sword. While the system ranks highly in ensuring access to all education levels, except for pre-primary where there is a shortage of places, it is much less equitable in learning outcomes. Annual national tests reveal significant differences in learning outcomes between northern-central and southern Italy. Contributing factors may include the less common presence of full-time school programs and school meals in southern Italy, as recently documented by the SVIMEZ report.
Additionally, adult education participation is low, indicating underdeveloped second-chance education. Policies are designed to ensure equal access but not sufficiently to ensure equal results, with political attention often focusing on access and neglecting outcomes.
Citations:
INVALSI. 2023. “Rapporto Invalsi 2023.” https://invalsi-areaprove.cineca.it/docs/2022/Rilevazioni_Nazionali/Rapporto/Rapporto_Prove_INVALSI_2022.pdf
Euridyce. 2023. “Structural Indicators for Monitoring Education and Training Systems in Europe 2023.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/publications
REV: Svimez annual report: https://lnx.svimez.info/svimez/il-rapporto/
Additionally, adult education participation is low, indicating underdeveloped second-chance education. Policies are designed to ensure equal access but not sufficiently to ensure equal results, with political attention often focusing on access and neglecting outcomes.
Citations:
INVALSI. 2023. “Rapporto Invalsi 2023.” https://invalsi-areaprove.cineca.it/docs/2022/Rilevazioni_Nazionali/Rapporto/Rapporto_Prove_INVALSI_2022.pdf
Euridyce. 2023. “Structural Indicators for Monitoring Education and Training Systems in Europe 2023.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/publications
REV: Svimez annual report: https://lnx.svimez.info/svimez/il-rapporto/
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To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
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9
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
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7
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Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
Italy did not have an extensive minimum income scheme until 2019, when the first Conte government introduced the “Reddito di Cittadinanza” (RdC). This policy replaced several previously uncoordinated measures with a variable income supplement for individuals below a certain economic threshold. For those able to work, this allowance was conditional on accepting job offers proposed by employment centers. However, official data show that very few beneficiaries found employment.
By the end of 2022, 1.1 million families and 2.5 million individuals had received this allowance. While the RdC was a positive step toward a more inclusive social policy, it was insufficient to cover all people in poverty, especially families with children and foreigners. The “assegno unico per i figli” (children’s allowance), approved under the Draghi administration, partially addressed these shortcomings.
The Meloni government modified the RdC at the end of 2022, in line with the center-right coalition’s electoral promises. The RdC was replaced by the more stringent “Assegno di Inclusione” and the Subsidy for Training and Work for employable individuals. The “Assegno di Inclusione” has stricter minimum requirements and mandates active job seeking where possible.
Families eligible for the new “Assegno di Inclusione” receive approximately €740 per month. According to the National Institute for Pensions and Welfare (INPS), there has been a one-third decrease in the number of families involved compared to the previous scheme. With this reform, the Meloni government aims to encourage employable recipients to actively seek employment.
The landscape of low-income benefits in Italy remains complex and fragmented across areas like housing, water and sanitation, energy, public transport, digital infrastructure, and financial services. Housing benefits are highly decentralized, with regions as the main actors. Local-level preferential tariffs benefit the poorest in transport, and specific bonuses are provided for low-income citizens in water, sanitation, and digital infrastructure. Similarly, iIn energy, tariffs are protected for the weakest and poorest.
Citations:
INPS. 2023. “XXI Rapporto annuale INPS.” https://www.inps.it/it/it/dati-e-bilanci/rapporti-annuali/xxi-rapporto-annuale.html
By the end of 2022, 1.1 million families and 2.5 million individuals had received this allowance. While the RdC was a positive step toward a more inclusive social policy, it was insufficient to cover all people in poverty, especially families with children and foreigners. The “assegno unico per i figli” (children’s allowance), approved under the Draghi administration, partially addressed these shortcomings.
The Meloni government modified the RdC at the end of 2022, in line with the center-right coalition’s electoral promises. The RdC was replaced by the more stringent “Assegno di Inclusione” and the Subsidy for Training and Work for employable individuals. The “Assegno di Inclusione” has stricter minimum requirements and mandates active job seeking where possible.
Families eligible for the new “Assegno di Inclusione” receive approximately €740 per month. According to the National Institute for Pensions and Welfare (INPS), there has been a one-third decrease in the number of families involved compared to the previous scheme. With this reform, the Meloni government aims to encourage employable recipients to actively seek employment.
The landscape of low-income benefits in Italy remains complex and fragmented across areas like housing, water and sanitation, energy, public transport, digital infrastructure, and financial services. Housing benefits are highly decentralized, with regions as the main actors. Local-level preferential tariffs benefit the poorest in transport, and specific bonuses are provided for low-income citizens in water, sanitation, and digital infrastructure. Similarly, iIn energy, tariffs are protected for the weakest and poorest.
Citations:
INPS. 2023. “XXI Rapporto annuale INPS.” https://www.inps.it/it/it/dati-e-bilanci/rapporti-annuali/xxi-rapporto-annuale.html
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
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9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
8
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6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
Family networks remain the most important, albeit informal, instrument of social protection in Italy. For example, the high percentage of owner-occupied homes helps many Italians avoid absolute poverty. Housing problems, which would be insurmountable for many young people, are often mitigated by family support rather than public assistance.
However, the poverty rate in Italy is rising. According to ISTAT, the share of people living in absolute poverty increased from 9.1% in 2021 to 9.7% in 2022, with the rate for households rising from 7.7% to 8.3%. These figures represent 5.6 million people living in 2.2 million households.
Minors are disproportionately affected by these poverty conditions, indicating that the system of subsidies and benefits for low-income families is inadequate in addressing the process of impoverishment. This inadequacy stems from structural developments in the economic system, not just high inflation. Despite numerous policy instruments to combat poverty, they are not effective enough to meet the basic needs of the growing number of citizens living in poverty.
Citations:
ISTAT. 2023. “Report povertà. 2022.” https://www.istat.it/it/files//2023/10/REPORT-POVERTA-2022.pdf
However, the poverty rate in Italy is rising. According to ISTAT, the share of people living in absolute poverty increased from 9.1% in 2021 to 9.7% in 2022, with the rate for households rising from 7.7% to 8.3%. These figures represent 5.6 million people living in 2.2 million households.
Minors are disproportionately affected by these poverty conditions, indicating that the system of subsidies and benefits for low-income families is inadequate in addressing the process of impoverishment. This inadequacy stems from structural developments in the economic system, not just high inflation. Despite numerous policy instruments to combat poverty, they are not effective enough to meet the basic needs of the growing number of citizens living in poverty.
Citations:
ISTAT. 2023. “Report povertà. 2022.” https://www.istat.it/it/files//2023/10/REPORT-POVERTA-2022.pdf
Graph View
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
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9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
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7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
Italy’s national health system provides universal, comprehensive coverage for the entire population. The system is mainly financed by the central government, though healthcare is provided and managed by regional authorities, which have considerable autonomy in designing their organizational systems. Services provided are generally of medium to high quality across the country, although significant differences exist between regions.
Public spending on health was 6.8% of GDP in 2022, slightly below the OECD and EU averages. Private expenditure corresponded to 25% of public funding. After a peak in public spending in 2020 and 2021, the level returned to pre-2019 levels in 2022, despite high inflation around 12% that year. This indicates that both the Draghi and Meloni governments preferred to invest additional public funds in health at the expense of other policy objectives.
The system’s resilience is influenced by its regionalization, resulting in 20 different healthcare systems within Italy. This means national guidelines and programs are implemented differently across regions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the best-performing regions had integrated health systems, such as Veneto, Toscana, and Emilia Romagna, compared to those with hospital-centered organizations.
The system is closely monitored at the central level, but this does not improve the quality of differentiated implementation. Digitalization and medical technology are well developed in the central and northern regions, while lagging in southern regions. Consequently, resilience is expected to vary significantly during crises. Concerns exist about the future capacity of the health system to maintain current standards, given insufficient public funding to guarantee technological equipment quality, recruit the required number of doctors, and address the chronic shortage of nurses.
Public spending on health was 6.8% of GDP in 2022, slightly below the OECD and EU averages. Private expenditure corresponded to 25% of public funding. After a peak in public spending in 2020 and 2021, the level returned to pre-2019 levels in 2022, despite high inflation around 12% that year. This indicates that both the Draghi and Meloni governments preferred to invest additional public funds in health at the expense of other policy objectives.
The system’s resilience is influenced by its regionalization, resulting in 20 different healthcare systems within Italy. This means national guidelines and programs are implemented differently across regions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the best-performing regions had integrated health systems, such as Veneto, Toscana, and Emilia Romagna, compared to those with hospital-centered organizations.
The system is closely monitored at the central level, but this does not improve the quality of differentiated implementation. Digitalization and medical technology are well developed in the central and northern regions, while lagging in southern regions. Consequently, resilience is expected to vary significantly during crises. Concerns exist about the future capacity of the health system to maintain current standards, given insufficient public funding to guarantee technological equipment quality, recruit the required number of doctors, and address the chronic shortage of nurses.
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
A 2000 World Health Organization (WHO) report ranked the Italian healthcare system second in the world. A recent Bloomberg analysis also placed the Italian system among the most efficient globally. A 2017 Lancet study ranked the Italian system highly for access and infrastructure, cultural factors, and the political and managerial capacities of local administrations, but noted regional disparities in public healthcare quality.
Despite similar levels of per capita expenditure, services are generally better in northern and central Italy than in southern Italy, where corruption, patronage, and administrative inefficiency have driven up healthcare costs. In these regions, lower quality and longer waiting lists mean wealthier individuals often turn to the private sector for medical care.
Regional disparities lead to significant health tourism to the north. The existing system of national quality standards, correlated with resources and intended to be implemented across regions, has not yet reduced the quality gap between the North and South.
To improve the quality of the healthcare system, the NRPP plans to invest around 16 billion euros. This investment aims to disseminate new healthcare models through various organizational innovations. On one hand, it focuses on developing proximity networks, intermediate structures, and telemedicine for territorial healthcare. On the other hand, it promotes innovation, research, and the digitalization of the National Health Service.
The interventions are specifically targeted at significantly improving territorial services by:
-Strengthening and creating territorial structures and services, such as community homes and hospitals
-Enhancing home care
-Developing telemedicine
-More effectively integrating all social health services
However, the risk remains that the implementation of these innovations will vary widely across the country, and the results are not yet clear. Additionally, the Meloni government has expressed doubts regarding the future financial sustainability of these territorial services.
Citations:
Ministero della Salute. 2023. “Moniotoraggio LEA (2021).” https://www.salute.gov.it/portale/lea/dettaglioPubblicazioniLea.jsp?lingua=italiano&id=3329
Despite similar levels of per capita expenditure, services are generally better in northern and central Italy than in southern Italy, where corruption, patronage, and administrative inefficiency have driven up healthcare costs. In these regions, lower quality and longer waiting lists mean wealthier individuals often turn to the private sector for medical care.
Regional disparities lead to significant health tourism to the north. The existing system of national quality standards, correlated with resources and intended to be implemented across regions, has not yet reduced the quality gap between the North and South.
To improve the quality of the healthcare system, the NRPP plans to invest around 16 billion euros. This investment aims to disseminate new healthcare models through various organizational innovations. On one hand, it focuses on developing proximity networks, intermediate structures, and telemedicine for territorial healthcare. On the other hand, it promotes innovation, research, and the digitalization of the National Health Service.
The interventions are specifically targeted at significantly improving territorial services by:
-Strengthening and creating territorial structures and services, such as community homes and hospitals
-Enhancing home care
-Developing telemedicine
-More effectively integrating all social health services
However, the risk remains that the implementation of these innovations will vary widely across the country, and the results are not yet clear. Additionally, the Meloni government has expressed doubts regarding the future financial sustainability of these territorial services.
Citations:
Ministero della Salute. 2023. “Moniotoraggio LEA (2021).” https://www.salute.gov.it/portale/lea/dettaglioPubblicazioniLea.jsp?lingua=italiano&id=3329
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
Universal access to healthcare is a constitutional guarantee in Italy. However, significant differences exist in the quality of services provided. Even at the essential national level, disparities result in a pronounced gap between northern and southern Italy. Each year, about 1 million southern Italians travel to northern and central Italy to address their health needs. Long queues in public facilities for free access to more expensive medical tests and analyses often push people to seek private facilities, which come at a cost, disproportionately affecting lower-income individuals.
In 2021, a national plan for equity in health was launched (Plan 2021–2027) with investments from the European Regional Development Fund. The results of this plan are not yet available.
Citations:
Ministry of Health. 2021. “National Plan for Equity in Health.” https://www.pnes.salute.gov.it/imgs/C_17_pagineAree_6049_0_file.pdf
Fondazione Gimbe. 2023. “Rapporto sulla mobilitl regionale 2020.” https://www.gimbe.org/osservatorio/Report_Osservatorio_GIMBE_2023.02_Mobilita_sanitaria_2020.pdf
In 2021, a national plan for equity in health was launched (Plan 2021–2027) with investments from the European Regional Development Fund. The results of this plan are not yet available.
Citations:
Ministry of Health. 2021. “National Plan for Equity in Health.” https://www.pnes.salute.gov.it/imgs/C_17_pagineAree_6049_0_file.pdf
Fondazione Gimbe. 2023. “Rapporto sulla mobilitl regionale 2020.” https://www.gimbe.org/osservatorio/Report_Osservatorio_GIMBE_2023.02_Mobilita_sanitaria_2020.pdf
Graph View
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
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The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
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6
The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
5
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4
3
The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
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1
The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
Gender policy in Italy has seen improvements in legislation and some outcomes, but significant issues remain, particularly regarding the number of women in the workforce. In 2023, the employment rate for women aged 15-64 was 52.6%, the lowest among EU countries. There is a substantial regional divide: Northern Italian regions have rates around 60% and above, while southern regions fall below 50%, with three regions below 30%. Italy dropped from 66th to 79th out of 146 countries in the 2023 Global Gender Gap report.
Italy has a very low gender pay gap, according to Eurostat. In 2020, the country had approximately 149,000 public managers with near-equal gender distribution: 52% were women and 48% men. However, there was a notable decrease in the number of top positions in ministries from 41% in 2019 to 30% in 2022. These top positions, totaling 120, are filled by government appointments, meaning that both the Draghi and Meloni governments contributed to this decline. This reduction in high-level positions may influence the gender gap in leadership, as fewer women hold top roles despite the overall gender balance in public management.
The National Strategy for Gender Equality 2021-2026, adopted in 2012 and inspired by the European Union’s Strategy for Gender Equality 2020-2025, outlines values, policy directions, and goals to achieve gender equality. It serves as a cross-cutting priority of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan and as a reference for implementing the Family Code reform. It outlines five priorities: Work, Earnings, Qualifications, Time, and Power, with detailed, measurable objectives and targets to be achieved by 2026.
A national governance level for gender equality policies, to be approved by 2021, is composed of an Intragovernmental Steering Committee with the technical support of a National Observatory for Gender Integration Policies. The NRRP includes several tools for women’s empowerment, such as developing a system to certify gender parity in small and medium enterprises. However, the most significant efforts for gender parity in the NRRP involve family policies.
Citations:
Ragioneria generale dello Stato. 2023. “Bilancio di Genere 2021.” https://www.rgs.mef.gov.it/VERSIONE-I/attivita_istituzionali/formazione_e_gestione_del_bilancio/rendiconto/bilancio_di_genere
Global Gender Gap Report. 2023. “Global Gender Gap Report.” https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf
Italy has a very low gender pay gap, according to Eurostat. In 2020, the country had approximately 149,000 public managers with near-equal gender distribution: 52% were women and 48% men. However, there was a notable decrease in the number of top positions in ministries from 41% in 2019 to 30% in 2022. These top positions, totaling 120, are filled by government appointments, meaning that both the Draghi and Meloni governments contributed to this decline. This reduction in high-level positions may influence the gender gap in leadership, as fewer women hold top roles despite the overall gender balance in public management.
The National Strategy for Gender Equality 2021-2026, adopted in 2012 and inspired by the European Union’s Strategy for Gender Equality 2020-2025, outlines values, policy directions, and goals to achieve gender equality. It serves as a cross-cutting priority of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan and as a reference for implementing the Family Code reform. It outlines five priorities: Work, Earnings, Qualifications, Time, and Power, with detailed, measurable objectives and targets to be achieved by 2026.
A national governance level for gender equality policies, to be approved by 2021, is composed of an Intragovernmental Steering Committee with the technical support of a National Observatory for Gender Integration Policies. The NRRP includes several tools for women’s empowerment, such as developing a system to certify gender parity in small and medium enterprises. However, the most significant efforts for gender parity in the NRRP involve family policies.
Citations:
Ragioneria generale dello Stato. 2023. “Bilancio di Genere 2021.” https://www.rgs.mef.gov.it/VERSIONE-I/attivita_istituzionali/formazione_e_gestione_del_bilancio/rendiconto/bilancio_di_genere
Global Gender Gap Report. 2023. “Global Gender Gap Report.” https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf
Graph View
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
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9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
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7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
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4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
The family, often in its extended form, remains one of the most important institutions providing financial support for members with precarious and low-paid jobs and ensuring assistance to the elderly. Within the family, significant work and income redistribution occur, with services such as preschool childcare often provided by grandparents. Partly because of this reliance, state support for families has generally been weak in Italy. Apart from relatively generous provisions for maternity leave, including social security payments and limited tax deductions for children, the state has not offered much assistance. Public daycare facilities for preschool children are limited and vary considerably between regions. Families often must use more expensive private services, which receive only some state support.
The lack of significant policy measures has contributed to limited (although slowly increasing) participation of women in the labor force and a low overall employment rate. This, in turn, has also led to a very low birth rate, which continues to decline. Women in Italy are entitled to five months’ pay at 80% of their last salary for maternity leave. There is also an optional parental leave, which can be taken by both parents, for up to 12 months, paid at 80% of the last salary for the first month and 30% for the subsequent months. Self-employed workers are excluded from this provision.
The “Assegno Unico per i figli” project, launched under the second Conte government and completed under the Draghi government, provides an allowance for every child from birth to age 21. The NRPP also allocates resources to strengthen families, including increasing the number of nursery schools. A significant reform, Law 32/2002 “Family Law,” approved in 2022, requires the approval of several government decrees. The most important decrees, concerning the reorganization and strengthening of financial measures to support children’s education and the support and promotion of family responsibilities, have not yet been approved. The deadline is May 2024. The 2024 budget law, approved by the Meloni government, has allocated additional funds for nursery school bonuses and promoting women’s employment in private companies.
The lack of significant policy measures has contributed to limited (although slowly increasing) participation of women in the labor force and a low overall employment rate. This, in turn, has also led to a very low birth rate, which continues to decline. Women in Italy are entitled to five months’ pay at 80% of their last salary for maternity leave. There is also an optional parental leave, which can be taken by both parents, for up to 12 months, paid at 80% of the last salary for the first month and 30% for the subsequent months. Self-employed workers are excluded from this provision.
The “Assegno Unico per i figli” project, launched under the second Conte government and completed under the Draghi government, provides an allowance for every child from birth to age 21. The NRPP also allocates resources to strengthen families, including increasing the number of nursery schools. A significant reform, Law 32/2002 “Family Law,” approved in 2022, requires the approval of several government decrees. The most important decrees, concerning the reorganization and strengthening of financial measures to support children’s education and the support and promotion of family responsibilities, have not yet been approved. The deadline is May 2024. The 2024 budget law, approved by the Meloni government, has allocated additional funds for nursery school bonuses and promoting women’s employment in private companies.
Graph View
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
According to the latest INPS annual report (2023), the proportion of “poor pensioners” is high, even when considering multiple benefits (old-age, invalidity, survivors’, and social allowances). Additionally, pension income heterogeneity is significant. In 2021, excluding those who retired before age 50, 20% of pensioners had a gross pension income of less than €10,000 per year. This proportion remains substantial at 7.3% even when considering former private employees with occupational pensions who retired from 2017 onward. One-third of pensioners (32.8%) receive a pension of no more than €1,000 gross per month.
The report also shows that inequality in pension income is increasing, similar to labor income. The Gini index of gross annual pension income has steadily risen from approximately 0.30 in 1995 to around 0.35 in 2021. The increase in pension income inequality reflects trends in the labor market, where evidence shows growing inequality and low mobility, perpetuating income disparities. Variable redistributive mechanisms implicit in the pension calculation formula exacerbate this issue, particularly for pensioners under the retributive formula. For instance, salary increases at the end of one’s career and different parameters applied in various administrations can significantly affect the pension amount.
Citations:
INPS. 2023. XII Rapporto ANNUALE. https://www.inps.it/it/it/dati-e-bilanci/rapporti-annuali/xxii-rapporto-annuale.html
INPS. 2022. XXI Rapporto Annuale. https://www.inps.it/it/it/dati-e-bilanci/rapporti-annuali/xxi-rapporto-annuale.html
The report also shows that inequality in pension income is increasing, similar to labor income. The Gini index of gross annual pension income has steadily risen from approximately 0.30 in 1995 to around 0.35 in 2021. The increase in pension income inequality reflects trends in the labor market, where evidence shows growing inequality and low mobility, perpetuating income disparities. Variable redistributive mechanisms implicit in the pension calculation formula exacerbate this issue, particularly for pensioners under the retributive formula. For instance, salary increases at the end of one’s career and different parameters applied in various administrations can significantly affect the pension amount.
Citations:
INPS. 2023. XII Rapporto ANNUALE. https://www.inps.it/it/it/dati-e-bilanci/rapporti-annuali/xxii-rapporto-annuale.html
INPS. 2022. XXI Rapporto Annuale. https://www.inps.it/it/it/dati-e-bilanci/rapporti-annuali/xxi-rapporto-annuale.html
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
The 2011 Fornero reform of Italian pension policy raised the retirement age to 67, reduced benefit levels for higher-income groups, and linked retirement age to rising life expectancies, achieving a satisfactory level of sustainability. Thanks to this reform, no major changes to the retirement system would have been needed for the next few years, despite the demographic imbalance between the aged and the young.
The current situation is less positive in terms of intergenerational fairness, as younger generations will receive significantly smaller amounts upon retirement. Furthermore, the real average retirement age in 2022 was still 63.8 years due to various regulations allowing early retirement. The problem is exacerbated by the delayed or uncertain entry of younger cohorts into the labor market, a structural issue in the Italian labor market. Additionally, many unemployed individuals, especially women, face the challenge of receiving little or no pension. The issue of poverty prevention, already significant for a considerable portion of the population, will become even more relevant for today’s younger cohorts when they reach retirement age.
Supplementary pension schemes have been growing, with more than 9 million workers enrolled in a collective or individual supplementary pension scheme in 2022. However, this solution does not help younger workers in unstable and precarious jobs, as most enrollees have stable employment. An early retirement incentive scheme approved during the first Conte government, under pressure from the Northern League, added a burden on general taxation. The Draghi government limited this law’s impact, while the Meloni government has approved many small regulations in the 2023 and 2024 budget laws, which do not seem appropriate to strengthen the pension system’s coherence.
Structural conditions affecting the future performance of the Italian pension system include a decreasing birth rate, lack of planning for immigration, and low economic system productivity. These challenges are still not adequately addressed on the political agenda. Without policy intervention, those with interrupted careers and periods of precariousness risk receiving very low pensions. Although establishing a guaranteed pension system for younger generations has been a frequent topic of discussion, no decision has been made.
Citations:
Centro Studi e Ricerche Itinerari Previdenziali. 2023. Il Bilancio del Sistema Previdenziale italiano. https://www.uilpa.it/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/itinerari-prev.-decimo-rapporto.pdf
- Commissione Vigilanza Fondi Pensione. 2023. “Relazione per l’anno 2022.” https://www.covip.it/sites/default/files/relazioneannuale/covip_relazione_per_lanno_2022_20230607.pdf
Padula, M. 2023. “Pensioni senza un’idea di futuro.” https://lavoce.info/archives/103043/pensioni-senza-unidea-di-futuro/
The current situation is less positive in terms of intergenerational fairness, as younger generations will receive significantly smaller amounts upon retirement. Furthermore, the real average retirement age in 2022 was still 63.8 years due to various regulations allowing early retirement. The problem is exacerbated by the delayed or uncertain entry of younger cohorts into the labor market, a structural issue in the Italian labor market. Additionally, many unemployed individuals, especially women, face the challenge of receiving little or no pension. The issue of poverty prevention, already significant for a considerable portion of the population, will become even more relevant for today’s younger cohorts when they reach retirement age.
Supplementary pension schemes have been growing, with more than 9 million workers enrolled in a collective or individual supplementary pension scheme in 2022. However, this solution does not help younger workers in unstable and precarious jobs, as most enrollees have stable employment. An early retirement incentive scheme approved during the first Conte government, under pressure from the Northern League, added a burden on general taxation. The Draghi government limited this law’s impact, while the Meloni government has approved many small regulations in the 2023 and 2024 budget laws, which do not seem appropriate to strengthen the pension system’s coherence.
Structural conditions affecting the future performance of the Italian pension system include a decreasing birth rate, lack of planning for immigration, and low economic system productivity. These challenges are still not adequately addressed on the political agenda. Without policy intervention, those with interrupted careers and periods of precariousness risk receiving very low pensions. Although establishing a guaranteed pension system for younger generations has been a frequent topic of discussion, no decision has been made.
Citations:
Centro Studi e Ricerche Itinerari Previdenziali. 2023. Il Bilancio del Sistema Previdenziale italiano. https://www.uilpa.it/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/itinerari-prev.-decimo-rapporto.pdf
- Commissione Vigilanza Fondi Pensione. 2023. “Relazione per l’anno 2022.” https://www.covip.it/sites/default/files/relazioneannuale/covip_relazione_per_lanno_2022_20230607.pdf
Padula, M. 2023. “Pensioni senza un’idea di futuro.” https://lavoce.info/archives/103043/pensioni-senza-unidea-di-futuro/
Graph View
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
10
9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Large-scale immigration is a relatively new phenomenon in Italy compared to other European countries. In recent years, the number of legal immigrants – mainly from new EU member states – and illegal immigrants has increased significantly, making immigration one of the most contentious political issues. Some parties, notably the Northern League and the Brothers of Italy, have used negative or even xenophobic rhetoric during election campaigns, portraying immigrants as dangerous social elements.
There are around 5 million legal immigrants in Italy, of which 3.6 million are from non-EU countries. The number of illegal immigrants is estimated at around half a million. Historically, policies addressing immigration have focused on controlling illegal entry and temporarily hosting refugees rather than on integration. Provisions for large-scale regularization of immigrants, particularly those employed within families, had not been repeated until recently. The 2023 “Decreto flussi” theoretically aims to facilitate legal immigration from abroad but can also be used to regularize undocumented immigrants already in the country. This measure introduced a new, small-scale program to address the issue under the Meloni government.
As a result of the current situation, many immigrants remain involved in the informal economy and are thus exposed to economic exploitation, dangerous working conditions, and a lack of respect for their rights. Certain sectors rely heavily on migrant labor, including agriculture, construction, private elderly care, childcare services, and private cleaning services.
Access to citizenship for immigrants remains problematic. Discussions on “ius soli” (granting Italian citizenship to migrant children born in Italy) have been tense, and legislative proposals on this issue have failed to gain parliamentary approval. The school system has proved to be a positive factor in the integration process for young immigrants; however, there is a serious lack of courses for adult immigrants, and schools have not received sufficient resources to achieve the best results. Public housing policy has been weakened by budgetary constraints, resulting in many cities having ghetto-like areas where immigrants live in extremely poor housing conditions.
The universal healthcare system has generally been effective in providing medical treatment for immigrants. Charitable organizations, particularly those linked to the Catholic Church (e.g., Caritas), have made significant contributions to the support and integration of migrants. The Draghi government adopted a more flexible attitude toward illegal immigrants entering Italy, significantly increasing the quota of legal immigrants allowed into the country to meet labor needs in key economic sectors.
The Meloni government has adopted a two-pronged approach to immigration. On one hand, it has planned the legal entry of around 450,000 immigrants for work purposes, despite the higher demand for economic workers from companies, which was about 850,000. On the other hand, it has introduced further restrictions on illegal immigrants.
Overall, there is still a lack of a coherent national policy on the integration of migrants. Most efforts are largely in the hands of local governments and charities. National rules for obtaining Italian citizenship are very demanding, and political participation remains low. Approximately 1.6 million resident foreigners, representing more than 614,000 households, live in absolute poverty.
Citations:
- Caritas. 2023. “XXXII rapporto annuale Immigrazione.” https://www.caritas.it/presentazione-del-xxxii-rapporto-immigrazione
Istat. 2023. “Report Immigrazione.” https://www.istat.it/it/files//2023/02/REPORT_MIGRAZIONI_2021.pdf
REV: on the “Decreto Flussi” see https://www.fiscoetasse.com/files/17075/dpcm270923.pdf
There are around 5 million legal immigrants in Italy, of which 3.6 million are from non-EU countries. The number of illegal immigrants is estimated at around half a million. Historically, policies addressing immigration have focused on controlling illegal entry and temporarily hosting refugees rather than on integration. Provisions for large-scale regularization of immigrants, particularly those employed within families, had not been repeated until recently. The 2023 “Decreto flussi” theoretically aims to facilitate legal immigration from abroad but can also be used to regularize undocumented immigrants already in the country. This measure introduced a new, small-scale program to address the issue under the Meloni government.
As a result of the current situation, many immigrants remain involved in the informal economy and are thus exposed to economic exploitation, dangerous working conditions, and a lack of respect for their rights. Certain sectors rely heavily on migrant labor, including agriculture, construction, private elderly care, childcare services, and private cleaning services.
Access to citizenship for immigrants remains problematic. Discussions on “ius soli” (granting Italian citizenship to migrant children born in Italy) have been tense, and legislative proposals on this issue have failed to gain parliamentary approval. The school system has proved to be a positive factor in the integration process for young immigrants; however, there is a serious lack of courses for adult immigrants, and schools have not received sufficient resources to achieve the best results. Public housing policy has been weakened by budgetary constraints, resulting in many cities having ghetto-like areas where immigrants live in extremely poor housing conditions.
The universal healthcare system has generally been effective in providing medical treatment for immigrants. Charitable organizations, particularly those linked to the Catholic Church (e.g., Caritas), have made significant contributions to the support and integration of migrants. The Draghi government adopted a more flexible attitude toward illegal immigrants entering Italy, significantly increasing the quota of legal immigrants allowed into the country to meet labor needs in key economic sectors.
The Meloni government has adopted a two-pronged approach to immigration. On one hand, it has planned the legal entry of around 450,000 immigrants for work purposes, despite the higher demand for economic workers from companies, which was about 850,000. On the other hand, it has introduced further restrictions on illegal immigrants.
Overall, there is still a lack of a coherent national policy on the integration of migrants. Most efforts are largely in the hands of local governments and charities. National rules for obtaining Italian citizenship are very demanding, and political participation remains low. Approximately 1.6 million resident foreigners, representing more than 614,000 households, live in absolute poverty.
Citations:
- Caritas. 2023. “XXXII rapporto annuale Immigrazione.” https://www.caritas.it/presentazione-del-xxxii-rapporto-immigrazione
Istat. 2023. “Report Immigrazione.” https://www.istat.it/it/files//2023/02/REPORT_MIGRAZIONI_2021.pdf
REV: on the “Decreto Flussi” see https://www.fiscoetasse.com/files/17075/dpcm270923.pdf
Graph View
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
The Italian government’s commitment to promoting socioeconomic development has generally been limited. Over the years, Italy has provided less international aid than most other European countries. The amount of aid to developing countries was expected to increase in 2021 after three years of decline but remained at 0.32% in 2022 (OECD and Donor Tracker 2023). Notably, 23% of these funds remain in Italy for managing refugees.
Italy has emphasized combating hunger, hosting three major UN food agencies: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the World Food Programme (WFP). For 2024, the budget law of the Meloni government will invest half a billion more than the previous year, primarily in Libya and on infrastructure.
Development cooperation policy is directed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and implemented by the National Agency for Cooperation and Development, which has offices in 19 countries. However, the policy is not regularly monitored, and results are often not evaluated. Most funds are allocated directly to multilateral institutions and not managed by Italian institutions.
The newly launched “Piano Mattei” by the Meloni government aims to provide stronger aid and cooperation with African countries, indicating a willingness to increase Italy’s support for less-developed nations. However, the significance of the new funds remains unclear.
Citations:
Donor Tracker. 2023. “Italy.” https://donortracker.org/donor_profiles/italy#summary
https://temi.camera.it/leg19/provvedimento/disposizioni-urgenti-per-il-piano-mattei-per-lo-sviluppo-in-stati-del-continente-africano.html
Italy has emphasized combating hunger, hosting three major UN food agencies: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the World Food Programme (WFP). For 2024, the budget law of the Meloni government will invest half a billion more than the previous year, primarily in Libya and on infrastructure.
Development cooperation policy is directed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and implemented by the National Agency for Cooperation and Development, which has offices in 19 countries. However, the policy is not regularly monitored, and results are often not evaluated. Most funds are allocated directly to multilateral institutions and not managed by Italian institutions.
The newly launched “Piano Mattei” by the Meloni government aims to provide stronger aid and cooperation with African countries, indicating a willingness to increase Italy’s support for less-developed nations. However, the significance of the new funds remains unclear.
Citations:
Donor Tracker. 2023. “Italy.” https://donortracker.org/donor_profiles/italy#summary
https://temi.camera.it/leg19/provvedimento/disposizioni-urgenti-per-il-piano-mattei-per-lo-sviluppo-in-stati-del-continente-africano.html