Social Sustainability
#20Key Findings
Portugal falls into the lower-middle ranks internationally (rank 20) in the category of social sustainability.
Student performance in the education system has dropped in recent years. The system is facing a teacher shortage, adversely affecting teaching capacities. Despite recent improvements, education attainment figures remain among the OECD’s lowest.
The risk of poverty remains comparatively high even after social transfers. Rising housing costs have reached a crisis level, stressing many families’ budgets and sharply boosting homelessness rates. The health service is universally accessible with low fees, but spending cutbacks have led to service reductions and longer waiting times.
A gender equality strategy seeks to foster equality, but the gender pay gap is widening. Although the state aims to provide universal access to affordable childcare, available services meet only half the demand. Families receive broad financial support. The country has an exceptionally strong integration program for migrants.
Student performance in the education system has dropped in recent years. The system is facing a teacher shortage, adversely affecting teaching capacities. Despite recent improvements, education attainment figures remain among the OECD’s lowest.
The risk of poverty remains comparatively high even after social transfers. Rising housing costs have reached a crisis level, stressing many families’ budgets and sharply boosting homelessness rates. The health service is universally accessible with low fees, but spending cutbacks have led to service reductions and longer waiting times.
A gender equality strategy seeks to foster equality, but the gender pay gap is widening. Although the state aims to provide universal access to affordable childcare, available services meet only half the demand. Families receive broad financial support. The country has an exceptionally strong integration program for migrants.
Graph View
Graph View
To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
The latest results from the PISA assessment reveal that over 60% of Portuguese students are enrolled in schools experiencing a teacher shortage (OECD, 2023b). This reflects the aging of the teacher population, an issue identified several years ago but largely unaddressed. Portugal now boasts one of the oldest teaching populations in the OECD. Data for 2022 shows there were 1,397.5 teachers aged 50 or above for every 100 teachers aged under 35 at the post-primary level and 997 at the primary level (Pordata, 2023). This compares to 63.7 and 82.7 in 2002 and 186.7 and 150.2 in 2012 (Pordata, 2023). The aging demographic of the teaching workforce has resulted in a gradual rise in retirements, a trend not matched by an influx of younger teachers.
School directors have reported that the scarcity of educators adversely affects teaching capacity, which could partly account for the recent PISA findings. Frequent policy changes in the sector also contribute to this issue. The 2022 PISA assessment indicates a decline in education quality in terms of student performance, with the drop exceeding the average observed across OECD countries. This downturn marks a setback for Portugal, placing it below the levels achieved in 2009, despite consistent progress in preceding years.
Additionally, 27% of students attend schools where the quality of teaching is compromised by the presence of inadequate or underqualified teachers. Teachers’ unions have been vocal in asserting that enhancing the attractiveness of the teaching profession and improving working conditions are crucial. However, to date, there has been no concrete action from the government to address these issues. This lack of response highlights the need for focused efforts to resolve the challenges facing the teaching profession in Portugal.
In terms of educational attainment, despite improvements since the turn of the millennium, Portugal continues to exhibit low levels. It ranks at the bottom of the OECD for the proportion of the population with upper secondary education, with only 28.9% of individuals aged 25 to 64 achieving this level in 2022 – a modest 1.7 percentage point improvement from 2020 (OECD, 2023a). While Portugal performs relatively better in tertiary education (31.5% in 2022), it still lags about 10 percentage points below the OECD average.
Citations:
OECD. 2023. “Adult education level (indicator).” doi: 10.1787/36bce3fe-en
https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/adult-education-level.htm
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education. Paris: OECD Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-enhttps://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2022-results-volume-i_53f23881-en
PORDATA. 2023. “Índice de envelhecimento dos docentes em exercício nos ensinos pré-escolar, básico e secundário: por nível de ensino – Continente.”
https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/indice+de+envelhecimento+dos+docentes+em+exercicio++nos+ensinos+pre+escolar++basico+e+secundario+por+nivel+de+ensino+++continente-944-7743
School directors have reported that the scarcity of educators adversely affects teaching capacity, which could partly account for the recent PISA findings. Frequent policy changes in the sector also contribute to this issue. The 2022 PISA assessment indicates a decline in education quality in terms of student performance, with the drop exceeding the average observed across OECD countries. This downturn marks a setback for Portugal, placing it below the levels achieved in 2009, despite consistent progress in preceding years.
Additionally, 27% of students attend schools where the quality of teaching is compromised by the presence of inadequate or underqualified teachers. Teachers’ unions have been vocal in asserting that enhancing the attractiveness of the teaching profession and improving working conditions are crucial. However, to date, there has been no concrete action from the government to address these issues. This lack of response highlights the need for focused efforts to resolve the challenges facing the teaching profession in Portugal.
In terms of educational attainment, despite improvements since the turn of the millennium, Portugal continues to exhibit low levels. It ranks at the bottom of the OECD for the proportion of the population with upper secondary education, with only 28.9% of individuals aged 25 to 64 achieving this level in 2022 – a modest 1.7 percentage point improvement from 2020 (OECD, 2023a). While Portugal performs relatively better in tertiary education (31.5% in 2022), it still lags about 10 percentage points below the OECD average.
Citations:
OECD. 2023. “Adult education level (indicator).” doi: 10.1787/36bce3fe-en
https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/adult-education-level.htm
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Education. Paris: OECD Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-enhttps://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2022-results-volume-i_53f23881-en
PORDATA. 2023. “Índice de envelhecimento dos docentes em exercício nos ensinos pré-escolar, básico e secundário: por nível de ensino – Continente.”
https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/indice+de+envelhecimento+dos+docentes+em+exercicio++nos+ensinos+pre+escolar++basico+e+secundario+por+nivel+de+ensino+++continente-944-7743
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
Portugal offers equitable free education to students regardless of their socioeconomic backgrounds. Textbooks are free for students in public schools throughout the 12 years of compulsory education. Monthly scholarships aim to curb dropout rates, enhance qualifications, and offset increased costs tied to mandatory attendance. Higher education features relatively affordable fees, accompanied by means-tested support for low-income students.
However, this contrasts with disparities in the quality of education between public and private schools. The average school scores in the 2022 national exams ranged from 15.11 (out of 20) in the highest-rated public school to 7.83 in the lowest-rated public school (Público, 2023a). Disparities are more pronounced in private schools, where the top-performing school averaged 16.36 – over twice the average of the lowest-rated school, which was 7.09.
Additionally, the ongoing wave of teacher strikes is disproportionately impacting students in public schools. As of January, several public schools, particularly in the Lisbon and Algarve regions, are struggling to find teachers to fill remaining vacancies in their timetables. High rental prices in these areas are a significant deterrent for many teachers considering job postings. In response, the government has introduced an extraordinary income support measure: during 2024, teachers assigned to the Algarve and Lisbon regions who live more than 70 kilometers from their workplace will be eligible for a maximum monthly support of up to €200. This initiative aims to alleviate the financial burden for teachers and address the staffing challenges in these regions, although its actual effectiveness is constrained by the very high rent in these regions.
Regarding early childhood, the government has recently intensified efforts to ensure universal access to affordable and accessible childcare through the “Creche Feliz” program (DRE, 2022). However, stakeholders in the field have deemed these efforts insufficient (Público, 2023b).
Citations:
DRE. 2022. Ordinance No. 198/2022 – Regulamenta as condições específicas de concretização da medida da gratuitidade das creches e creches familiares, integradas no sistema de cooperação, bem como das amas do Instituto da Segurança Social, I. P.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/portaria/198-2022-186721643
Público. 2023a. “Ranking das escolas: veja em que lugar ficou a sua.”
https://www.publico.pt/rankings-escolas-2022/lugar-sua-escola
Projeto de Lei 120/XV/1 – Propõe a criação de uma rede pública de creches como forma de garantir os direitos das crianças. https://www.parlamento.pt/ActividadeParlamentar/Paginas/DetalheIniciativa.aspx?BID=121557
Público. 2023. “Creche Feliz: ‘Não estávamos preparados para este aumento de crianças.’” https://www.publico.pt/2023/10/25/sociedade/noticia/creche-feliz-nao-estavamos-preparados-aumento-criancas-2067969?reloaded&rnd=0.5856044468316948
However, this contrasts with disparities in the quality of education between public and private schools. The average school scores in the 2022 national exams ranged from 15.11 (out of 20) in the highest-rated public school to 7.83 in the lowest-rated public school (Público, 2023a). Disparities are more pronounced in private schools, where the top-performing school averaged 16.36 – over twice the average of the lowest-rated school, which was 7.09.
Additionally, the ongoing wave of teacher strikes is disproportionately impacting students in public schools. As of January, several public schools, particularly in the Lisbon and Algarve regions, are struggling to find teachers to fill remaining vacancies in their timetables. High rental prices in these areas are a significant deterrent for many teachers considering job postings. In response, the government has introduced an extraordinary income support measure: during 2024, teachers assigned to the Algarve and Lisbon regions who live more than 70 kilometers from their workplace will be eligible for a maximum monthly support of up to €200. This initiative aims to alleviate the financial burden for teachers and address the staffing challenges in these regions, although its actual effectiveness is constrained by the very high rent in these regions.
Regarding early childhood, the government has recently intensified efforts to ensure universal access to affordable and accessible childcare through the “Creche Feliz” program (DRE, 2022). However, stakeholders in the field have deemed these efforts insufficient (Público, 2023b).
Citations:
DRE. 2022. Ordinance No. 198/2022 – Regulamenta as condições específicas de concretização da medida da gratuitidade das creches e creches familiares, integradas no sistema de cooperação, bem como das amas do Instituto da Segurança Social, I. P.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/portaria/198-2022-186721643
Público. 2023a. “Ranking das escolas: veja em que lugar ficou a sua.”
https://www.publico.pt/rankings-escolas-2022/lugar-sua-escola
Projeto de Lei 120/XV/1 – Propõe a criação de uma rede pública de creches como forma de garantir os direitos das crianças. https://www.parlamento.pt/ActividadeParlamentar/Paginas/DetalheIniciativa.aspx?BID=121557
Público. 2023. “Creche Feliz: ‘Não estávamos preparados para este aumento de crianças.’” https://www.publico.pt/2023/10/25/sociedade/noticia/creche-feliz-nao-estavamos-preparados-aumento-criancas-2067969?reloaded&rnd=0.5856044468316948
Graph View
To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
Portugal offers a range of non-cash benefits to ensure equitable access to essential services for lower-income individuals. Families experiencing poverty can obtain food and meals from the Food Bank, a private institution of social solidarity. Additionally, the government provides social tariffs for water, gas, internet, electricity, and a social transport pass, all of which offer monthly discounts or exemptions to those in socioeconomic need. Social housing is also available, with rents tailored to the income levels of lower-income families. Furthermore, some municipalities offer occasional cash benefits for those facing economic hardship and social risk.
However, the rising number of homeless people – detailed under “”Policies Targeting Quality of Essential Services and Basic Income Support” – indicates that the supply of these services is not sufficient to meet demand.
One of the most significant benefits available to all citizens is the social integration income, a cash benefit designed to provide individuals and their families with the resources needed for basic necessities. This benefit also aims to support gradual social and professional integration. It is one of Portugal’s key measures to ensure access to essential services and basic income support, benefiting more than 181,000 individuals.
To address the rising cost of living in 2022, the “Families First” program provided extraordinary support of €125 per adult and €50 per child and young person to low-income families and social benefit recipients. In 2023, the government introduced additional support for the most vulnerable families, offering €30 per month per household, paid three times throughout the year. Moreover, families with children and young people up to the fourth income bracket of the child benefit received an extra €15 per month for each child, also distributed quarterly. All these extraordinary support payments were made automatically, without the need for families to apply.
Despite the array of benefits for those in need, most institutions, including social security, adopt a reactive rather than proactive approach (without considering the above-mentioned extraordinary supports), failing to proactively reach out to eligible families and individuals. This results in high non-take-up rates, attributed to factors such as a lack of awareness of available benefits, stigma, reluctance to disclose personal information, feeling diminished by social security workers, difficulties in comprehending program requirements, or lack of time due to the complexity and time burden of participating in welfare programs (Barreiros, 2017).
Citations:
Barreiros, Mónica. 2017. “Shame on you – the stigma of social welfare benefits.”
https://run.unl.pt/bitstream/10362/32394/1/Barreiros_2018.pdf
However, the rising number of homeless people – detailed under “”Policies Targeting Quality of Essential Services and Basic Income Support” – indicates that the supply of these services is not sufficient to meet demand.
One of the most significant benefits available to all citizens is the social integration income, a cash benefit designed to provide individuals and their families with the resources needed for basic necessities. This benefit also aims to support gradual social and professional integration. It is one of Portugal’s key measures to ensure access to essential services and basic income support, benefiting more than 181,000 individuals.
To address the rising cost of living in 2022, the “Families First” program provided extraordinary support of €125 per adult and €50 per child and young person to low-income families and social benefit recipients. In 2023, the government introduced additional support for the most vulnerable families, offering €30 per month per household, paid three times throughout the year. Moreover, families with children and young people up to the fourth income bracket of the child benefit received an extra €15 per month for each child, also distributed quarterly. All these extraordinary support payments were made automatically, without the need for families to apply.
Despite the array of benefits for those in need, most institutions, including social security, adopt a reactive rather than proactive approach (without considering the above-mentioned extraordinary supports), failing to proactively reach out to eligible families and individuals. This results in high non-take-up rates, attributed to factors such as a lack of awareness of available benefits, stigma, reluctance to disclose personal information, feeling diminished by social security workers, difficulties in comprehending program requirements, or lack of time due to the complexity and time burden of participating in welfare programs (Barreiros, 2017).
Citations:
Barreiros, Mónica. 2017. “Shame on you – the stigma of social welfare benefits.”
https://run.unl.pt/bitstream/10362/32394/1/Barreiros_2018.pdf
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
While Portugal’s government social policies aim to reduce socioeconomic disparities and social exclusion, and benefits are available to those in need, these measures have been only partially effective in preventing poverty. As of 2022, the poverty risk rate after social transfers remained at 17% – an increase from both the previous year and 2019, the year before the pandemic (PORDATA, 2023). This statistic translates to about 1.78 million people living on less than €591 per month. Notably, children under 18 are the most vulnerable to poverty, whereas the working-age population faces the lowest risk. Additionally, women are disproportionately affected by poverty compared to men.
It is important to note that the social transfers considered in this statistic may not include all the cash transfers previously mentioned. The poverty rate before social transfers in the same year was more than double, with 41.8% of the population in Portugal at risk of poverty based solely on income from work, capital, and private transfers, without government support. While Portugal has made progress in addressing social exclusion and supporting basic human needs – as evidenced by the decrease in the population experiencing severe material deprivation to 5% over the last five years – significant challenges remain.
In Portugal, a range of essential public services, including water, energy, sanitation, transport, and digital services, is legally established at the national level. To ensure access to basic needs like water, gas, internet, electricity, and public transport, the government has implemented various social tariffs.
A “social tariff” system is in place for water and wastewater collection and treatment, aimed at assisting low-income households. However, this system is not uniformly enforced across all Portuguese municipalities. The adoption of the social tariff is left to the discretion of each municipality, allowing them to choose whether to implement this measure voluntarily. The government’s program for the 2019 – 2023 legislative period includes a strategic review of the water social tariff’s implementation. The objective of this review is “so that more people may, automatically, enjoy this benefit,” reflecting a commitment to expanding access to this essential service.
For energy, Portugal relies on reduced tariffs as the sole support mechanism for low-income households since no direct cash benefits are available for energy costs. There is also a gas social tariff, but it applies only to clients of piped natural gas, excluding clients of bottled gas (except those living in social housing). The government’s program for the legislative period 2019 – 2023 includes a plan to extend the gas social tariff to city gas and liquefied petroleum gas (bottled and piped).
In the realm of public transport, students under 23 benefit from discounted rates, which are further reduced for those participating in the school social action program. Additionally, recipients of social insertion income (MI scheme) and those receiving means-tested social solidarity payments for the elderly are eligible for a 50% reduction in transport fees, while other low-income individuals receive a 25% discount (Batista and Marlier, 2020).
In contrast, housing remains a critical and unmet need, particularly in Portugal’s large cities. The housing crisis, marked by a lack of available real estate and rising costs, poses a significant challenge. A substantial part of many families’ incomes is now consumed by housing expenses, with more than 50% of households struggling to afford monthly housing costs. The situation has led to a 78% increase in homelessness since 2018 (Expresso, 2023) – underscoring the pressing need for more effective and comprehensive housing solutions.
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “Taxa de risco de pobreza por grupo etário: antes e após transferências sociais.”
https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/taxa+de+risco+de+pobreza+por+grupo+etario+antes+e+apos+transferencias+sociais-3009
Expresso. 2023. “Sem-abrigo aumentam 78% em quatro anos.” Semanário, October 20. https://leitor.expresso.pt/semanario/semanario2660/html/primeiro-caderno/investigacao/sem-abrigo-aumentam-78-em-quatro-anos
Batista, I., and E. Marlier. 2020. “Access to Essential Services for People on Low Incomes in Europe: An Analysis of Policies in 35 Countries.” European Social Policy Network (ESPN), European Commission. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/9b16d965-090e-11eb-bc07-01aa75ed71a1
It is important to note that the social transfers considered in this statistic may not include all the cash transfers previously mentioned. The poverty rate before social transfers in the same year was more than double, with 41.8% of the population in Portugal at risk of poverty based solely on income from work, capital, and private transfers, without government support. While Portugal has made progress in addressing social exclusion and supporting basic human needs – as evidenced by the decrease in the population experiencing severe material deprivation to 5% over the last five years – significant challenges remain.
In Portugal, a range of essential public services, including water, energy, sanitation, transport, and digital services, is legally established at the national level. To ensure access to basic needs like water, gas, internet, electricity, and public transport, the government has implemented various social tariffs.
A “social tariff” system is in place for water and wastewater collection and treatment, aimed at assisting low-income households. However, this system is not uniformly enforced across all Portuguese municipalities. The adoption of the social tariff is left to the discretion of each municipality, allowing them to choose whether to implement this measure voluntarily. The government’s program for the 2019 – 2023 legislative period includes a strategic review of the water social tariff’s implementation. The objective of this review is “so that more people may, automatically, enjoy this benefit,” reflecting a commitment to expanding access to this essential service.
For energy, Portugal relies on reduced tariffs as the sole support mechanism for low-income households since no direct cash benefits are available for energy costs. There is also a gas social tariff, but it applies only to clients of piped natural gas, excluding clients of bottled gas (except those living in social housing). The government’s program for the legislative period 2019 – 2023 includes a plan to extend the gas social tariff to city gas and liquefied petroleum gas (bottled and piped).
In the realm of public transport, students under 23 benefit from discounted rates, which are further reduced for those participating in the school social action program. Additionally, recipients of social insertion income (MI scheme) and those receiving means-tested social solidarity payments for the elderly are eligible for a 50% reduction in transport fees, while other low-income individuals receive a 25% discount (Batista and Marlier, 2020).
In contrast, housing remains a critical and unmet need, particularly in Portugal’s large cities. The housing crisis, marked by a lack of available real estate and rising costs, poses a significant challenge. A substantial part of many families’ incomes is now consumed by housing expenses, with more than 50% of households struggling to afford monthly housing costs. The situation has led to a 78% increase in homelessness since 2018 (Expresso, 2023) – underscoring the pressing need for more effective and comprehensive housing solutions.
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “Taxa de risco de pobreza por grupo etário: antes e após transferências sociais.”
https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/taxa+de+risco+de+pobreza+por+grupo+etario+antes+e+apos+transferencias+sociais-3009
Expresso. 2023. “Sem-abrigo aumentam 78% em quatro anos.” Semanário, October 20. https://leitor.expresso.pt/semanario/semanario2660/html/primeiro-caderno/investigacao/sem-abrigo-aumentam-78-em-quatro-anos
Batista, I., and E. Marlier. 2020. “Access to Essential Services for People on Low Incomes in Europe: An Analysis of Policies in 35 Countries.” European Social Policy Network (ESPN), European Commission. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/9b16d965-090e-11eb-bc07-01aa75ed71a1
Graph View
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
While the country effectively addressed the Covid-19 pandemic, the post-pandemic period has aggravated existing deficiencies in Portugal’s national health system, resulting in severe strain. Efforts to curb public expenditure over the past few decades have financially pressured the healthcare sector. This, combined with the failure to execute promised investments over the last decade, has led to significant reductions in some services, longer wait times for consultations and surgeries, and resignations by medical directors in protest. Consequently, hospitals across the country have faced significant constraints, with some services even occasionally closing (RTP, 2023).
The government is trying to increase the recruitment of doctors and nurses into the health system, seeking to implement a speedier, simpler, and less bureaucratic process. In December 2023, it opened nearly 1,000 new job openings for newly graduated specialist doctors. In April of the same year, it had already conducted a similar recruitment process (Público, 2023). However, past experience with recruiting programs like these shows that if working conditions and wages do not improve, many job opportunities will remain unfilled.
To address existing deficiencies and enhance the resilience of the health system, the Portuguese government is undertaking a significant reform in the use of technology within the national health service (NHS). This involves an investment of over €300 million from the Recovery and Resilience Plan for the digital transformation of health. This substantial investment aims to expedite the enhancement of infrastructures and data networks, develop new tools for citizens, value the work of healthcare professionals, and create more efficient systems for data storage and usage. A notable portion of this investment, €117 million, is allocated for acquiring advanced medical equipment. The goal is to modernize the technology available to healthcare providers and patients, with the anticipated benefit of increasing the production of diagnostic tests and reducing waiting times (Observador, 2023).
The utilization of Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP) funds primarily focuses on overcoming challenges that hinder the digital transition in the NHS. These challenges include the scarcity of adequate hardware and software for health professionals, the need to standardize information systems, and the imperative to enhance user experience and data accessibility. The implementation plan encompasses several measures, including the integration of functionalities for telehealth and telemonitoring. If these initiatives are implemented, they may significantly contribute to modernizing the NHS, making healthcare more accessible and efficient for both healthcare providers and patients in Portugal. However, to achieve this, the plan must avoid the large gap between what is idealized and what is actually delivered that plagues public policy across many areas.
Citations:
RTP. 2023. “Constrangimentos no SNS. Médicos mantêm escusas, enfermeiros entram em greve.” RTP Notícias, November 3.
https://www.rtp.pt/noticias/pais/constrangimentos-no-sns-medicos-mantem-escusas-enfermeiros-entram-em-greve_n1526668
Público. 2023. “Governo abre quase 1000 vagas no SNS para médicos especialistas recém-formados.” Público, December 2.
https://www.publico.pt/2023/12/02/sociedade/noticia/governo-abre-quase-1000-vagas-sns-medicos-recemespecialistas-2072330
Observador. 2023. “Governo anuncia 117 milhões para modernização tecnológica do SNS.” Observador, November 23.
https://observador.pt/2023/11/23/governo-anuncia-117-milhoes-para-modernizacao-tecnologica-do-sns/
The government is trying to increase the recruitment of doctors and nurses into the health system, seeking to implement a speedier, simpler, and less bureaucratic process. In December 2023, it opened nearly 1,000 new job openings for newly graduated specialist doctors. In April of the same year, it had already conducted a similar recruitment process (Público, 2023). However, past experience with recruiting programs like these shows that if working conditions and wages do not improve, many job opportunities will remain unfilled.
To address existing deficiencies and enhance the resilience of the health system, the Portuguese government is undertaking a significant reform in the use of technology within the national health service (NHS). This involves an investment of over €300 million from the Recovery and Resilience Plan for the digital transformation of health. This substantial investment aims to expedite the enhancement of infrastructures and data networks, develop new tools for citizens, value the work of healthcare professionals, and create more efficient systems for data storage and usage. A notable portion of this investment, €117 million, is allocated for acquiring advanced medical equipment. The goal is to modernize the technology available to healthcare providers and patients, with the anticipated benefit of increasing the production of diagnostic tests and reducing waiting times (Observador, 2023).
The utilization of Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP) funds primarily focuses on overcoming challenges that hinder the digital transition in the NHS. These challenges include the scarcity of adequate hardware and software for health professionals, the need to standardize information systems, and the imperative to enhance user experience and data accessibility. The implementation plan encompasses several measures, including the integration of functionalities for telehealth and telemonitoring. If these initiatives are implemented, they may significantly contribute to modernizing the NHS, making healthcare more accessible and efficient for both healthcare providers and patients in Portugal. However, to achieve this, the plan must avoid the large gap between what is idealized and what is actually delivered that plagues public policy across many areas.
Citations:
RTP. 2023. “Constrangimentos no SNS. Médicos mantêm escusas, enfermeiros entram em greve.” RTP Notícias, November 3.
https://www.rtp.pt/noticias/pais/constrangimentos-no-sns-medicos-mantem-escusas-enfermeiros-entram-em-greve_n1526668
Público. 2023. “Governo abre quase 1000 vagas no SNS para médicos especialistas recém-formados.” Público, December 2.
https://www.publico.pt/2023/12/02/sociedade/noticia/governo-abre-quase-1000-vagas-sns-medicos-recemespecialistas-2072330
Observador. 2023. “Governo anuncia 117 milhões para modernização tecnológica do SNS.” Observador, November 23.
https://observador.pt/2023/11/23/governo-anuncia-117-milhoes-para-modernizacao-tecnologica-do-sns/
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
Portugal has achieved notable success in several health policy areas despite facing various challenges. This includes commendable life expectancy and infant mortality rates given the country’s level of public expenditure (OECD, 2023). Additionally, Portugal’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly its vaccination efforts, was remarkable. The country also established the National Integrated Continuing Care Network, which, although currently at full capacity and in need of expansion, provides essential ongoing and integrated support for individuals who are dependent and require continuous healthcare and social support due to acute illnesses or chronic disease management.
Portugal is shifting toward a more proactive, preventive approach in healthcare. A significant example is the breast cancer screening program, where 80% of women participated, a figure well above the OECD average of 55% (OECD, 2023). However, considerable progress is still needed in preventive healthcare. The number of healthy life years at age 65 in Portugal is below the OECD average, despite a higher overall life expectancy. With an aging population, the need for better diagnostic and preventive measures is increasingly critical. Yet, Portugal ranks as the fourth lowest in per capita spending on health prevention programs in the OECD and lags in the proportion of health spending dedicated to prevention. The Directorate-General for Health has prioritized programs focusing on the prevention and promotion of healthy lifestyles, but these initiatives have not received sufficient medium-term funding.
Enhancing the timely delivery of quality healthcare services necessitates addressing the shortage of family doctors. Currently, more than 1.7 million Portuguese people – 16% of those enrolled in primary healthcare – lack a family doctor, a figure that has been increasing in recent months (CNN, 2023). This shortage underscores the need for concerted efforts to improve the capacity and efficiency of primary healthcare services in Portugal.
Citations:
OECD. 2023. “OECD Health at a Glance 2023 Country Note – Portugal.”
https://www.oecd.org/portugal/health-at-a-glance-Portugal-EN.pdf
CNN. 2023. “Há mais de 1,7 milhões de portugueses sem médico de família. E anúncio para contratar quase mil médicos arrisca ser mais um ‘fracasso’.” CNN Portugal, December 26.
https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/medico-de-familia/medicina-geral-e-familiar/ha-mais-de-1-7-milhoes-de-portugueses-sem-medico-de-familia-e-anuncio-para-contratar-quase-mil-medicos-arrisca-ser-mais-um-fracasso/20231226/658311b5d34e65afa2f8e05d
Portugal is shifting toward a more proactive, preventive approach in healthcare. A significant example is the breast cancer screening program, where 80% of women participated, a figure well above the OECD average of 55% (OECD, 2023). However, considerable progress is still needed in preventive healthcare. The number of healthy life years at age 65 in Portugal is below the OECD average, despite a higher overall life expectancy. With an aging population, the need for better diagnostic and preventive measures is increasingly critical. Yet, Portugal ranks as the fourth lowest in per capita spending on health prevention programs in the OECD and lags in the proportion of health spending dedicated to prevention. The Directorate-General for Health has prioritized programs focusing on the prevention and promotion of healthy lifestyles, but these initiatives have not received sufficient medium-term funding.
Enhancing the timely delivery of quality healthcare services necessitates addressing the shortage of family doctors. Currently, more than 1.7 million Portuguese people – 16% of those enrolled in primary healthcare – lack a family doctor, a figure that has been increasing in recent months (CNN, 2023). This shortage underscores the need for concerted efforts to improve the capacity and efficiency of primary healthcare services in Portugal.
Citations:
OECD. 2023. “OECD Health at a Glance 2023 Country Note – Portugal.”
https://www.oecd.org/portugal/health-at-a-glance-Portugal-EN.pdf
CNN. 2023. “Há mais de 1,7 milhões de portugueses sem médico de família. E anúncio para contratar quase mil médicos arrisca ser mais um ‘fracasso’.” CNN Portugal, December 26.
https://cnnportugal.iol.pt/medico-de-familia/medicina-geral-e-familiar/ha-mais-de-1-7-milhoes-de-portugueses-sem-medico-de-familia-e-anuncio-para-contratar-quase-mil-medicos-arrisca-ser-mais-um-fracasso/20231226/658311b5d34e65afa2f8e05d
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
The Constitution of the Portuguese Republic explicitly guarantees the right to health protection through a universal and comprehensive national health service accessible to everyone across the country (CRP, Article 64). While there are more private hospitals, the majority of health services are still provided by hospitals in the national health service or through public-private partnerships (INE, 2023). Access to public hospitals generally involves low fees, with exemptions for certain groups such as lower-income households from paying “user fees” (“taxas moderadoras”). The Ministry of Health has also introduced programs to ensure universal access to certain medications, including a recent initiative to provide new-generation insulin pumps through the NHS until 2026 (SNS, 2023).
Despite these provisions, there are challenges with access to primary healthcare. Approximately 1.7 million Portuguese lack a regular family doctor, a proportion that has risen by 29% in just one year, mainly due to the retirement of doctors that were not replaced (Diário de Notícias, 2023). This shortage has led to long queues for appointments at health centers and compromises timely medical care for some, especially those without access to private healthcare. Consequently, an increasing number of Portuguese are opting for health insurance and turning to the private sector. The challenge is further compounded by regional disparities, particularly in low-density areas like Alentejo, where there is a smaller network of public and private health facilities.
However, these challenges do not completely hinder access to healthcare. The OECD’s most recent health profile for Portugal, from 2021, indicates that only a small percentage of people reported unmet medical needs due to factors such as cost, distance, or waiting time (OECD, 2021). Existing evidence suggests a deterioration of this pattern since that report was published.
Citations:
CRP, Constituição da República Portuguesa, artigo 64º (Capítulo II, Parte I).
Diário de Notícias. 2023. “Utentes sem médico de família aumentam 29% num ano.”
https://www.dn.pt/sociedade/utentes-sem-medico-de-familia-aumentam-29-num-ano–16375028.html
OECD. 2021. Portugal: Country Health Profile 2021, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, Brussels.
https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-12/2021_chp_pt_english.pdf
INE. 2023. “Indicadores da Saúde.” https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&userLoadSave=Load&userTableOrder=11485&tipoSeleccao=1&contexto=pq&selTab=tab1&submitLoad=true
SNS. 2023. “Governo cria programa de acesso universal a bombas de insulina de nova geração.” https://www.sns.gov.pt/noticias/2023/05/31/governo-cria-programa-de-acesso-universal-a-bombas-de-insulina-de-nova-geracao/
Despite these provisions, there are challenges with access to primary healthcare. Approximately 1.7 million Portuguese lack a regular family doctor, a proportion that has risen by 29% in just one year, mainly due to the retirement of doctors that were not replaced (Diário de Notícias, 2023). This shortage has led to long queues for appointments at health centers and compromises timely medical care for some, especially those without access to private healthcare. Consequently, an increasing number of Portuguese are opting for health insurance and turning to the private sector. The challenge is further compounded by regional disparities, particularly in low-density areas like Alentejo, where there is a smaller network of public and private health facilities.
However, these challenges do not completely hinder access to healthcare. The OECD’s most recent health profile for Portugal, from 2021, indicates that only a small percentage of people reported unmet medical needs due to factors such as cost, distance, or waiting time (OECD, 2021). Existing evidence suggests a deterioration of this pattern since that report was published.
Citations:
CRP, Constituição da República Portuguesa, artigo 64º (Capítulo II, Parte I).
Diário de Notícias. 2023. “Utentes sem médico de família aumentam 29% num ano.”
https://www.dn.pt/sociedade/utentes-sem-medico-de-familia-aumentam-29-num-ano–16375028.html
OECD. 2021. Portugal: Country Health Profile 2021, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, Brussels.
https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-12/2021_chp_pt_english.pdf
INE. 2023. “Indicadores da Saúde.” https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&userLoadSave=Load&userTableOrder=11485&tipoSeleccao=1&contexto=pq&selTab=tab1&submitLoad=true
SNS. 2023. “Governo cria programa de acesso universal a bombas de insulina de nova geração.” https://www.sns.gov.pt/noticias/2023/05/31/governo-cria-programa-de-acesso-universal-a-bombas-de-insulina-de-nova-geracao/
Graph View
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
10
9
9
The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
2
1
1
The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
The Portuguese government’s commitment to ensuring gender equality is evidenced by the launch of the “Portugal + Igual (ENIND)” National Strategy for Equality and Non-Discrimination 2018 – 2030. Initiated in 2018, this strategy signifies a dedicated effort to address sex-based discrimination, prevent domestic violence, and foster equality between women and men in both policies and actions. It comprises three detailed action plans outlining specific objectives to be achieved by 2030 and the measures required to attain these goals. The implementation of these objectives is structured through defined indicators and the involvement of responsible entities, reflecting a systematic and committed approach to achieving gender equality in all respects.
In 2022, the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality (CIG), tasked with implementing gender equality policies, released a report on the first four years (2018 – 2021) of the strategy’s implementation. The report revealed that 85% of the measures in the action plan for equality between women and men and 79% of the measures in the action plan for preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence were executed (CIG, 2022). Currently, there is no available data for the years 2022 and 2023.
Following this evaluation, new action plans for the 2023 – 2026 cycle were developed based on public consultations and independent assessments. These plans aim to enhance reporting mechanisms, restructure governance, and strengthen the monitoring Technical Commissions for improved efficiency and operational effectiveness (DRE, 2023). The State Secretariat for Equality and Migrations oversees political coordination, while the CIG is responsible for technical coordination, supported by a Technical Committee to streamline the action plan monitoring process.
However, ongoing concerns persist. First, the tangible impact of these measures on societal attitudes and behaviors may take time to manifest. Second, despite a high rate of female workforce participation, Portugal continues to struggle with a widening gender pay gap, which increased to 11.4% in 2021 (PORDATA, 2023). This indicates persistent challenges in achieving full gender equality in the workplace.
Citations:
INE. 2023. “Indicadores da Saúde.” https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&userLoadSave=Load&userTableOrder=11485&tipoSeleccao=1&contexto=pq&selTab=tab1&submitLoad=true
SNS. 2023. “Governo cria programa de acesso universal a bombas de insulina de nova geração.” https://www.sns.gov.pt/noticias/2023/05/31/governo-cria-programa-de-acesso-universal-a-bombas-de-insulina-de-nova-geracao/
CRP. Constituição da República Portuguesa, artigo 64º (Capítulo II, Parte I).
Diário de Notícias. 2023. “Utentes sem médico de família aumentam 29% num ano.”
https://www.dn.pt/sociedade/utentes-sem-medico-de-familia-aumentam-29-num-ano–16375028.html
OECD. 2021. Portugal: Country Health Profile 2021, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing/Brussels: European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies.
https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-12/2021_chp_pt_english.pdf
DRE. 2023. Resolution of the Council of Ministers no. 92/2023 – Aprova os Planos de Ação no âmbito da Estratégia Nacional para a Igualdade e a Não Discriminação – Portugal + Igual, para o período de 2023-2026. https://files.diariodarepublica.pt/1s/2023/08/15700/0001200092.pdf
In 2022, the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality (CIG), tasked with implementing gender equality policies, released a report on the first four years (2018 – 2021) of the strategy’s implementation. The report revealed that 85% of the measures in the action plan for equality between women and men and 79% of the measures in the action plan for preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence were executed (CIG, 2022). Currently, there is no available data for the years 2022 and 2023.
Following this evaluation, new action plans for the 2023 – 2026 cycle were developed based on public consultations and independent assessments. These plans aim to enhance reporting mechanisms, restructure governance, and strengthen the monitoring Technical Commissions for improved efficiency and operational effectiveness (DRE, 2023). The State Secretariat for Equality and Migrations oversees political coordination, while the CIG is responsible for technical coordination, supported by a Technical Committee to streamline the action plan monitoring process.
However, ongoing concerns persist. First, the tangible impact of these measures on societal attitudes and behaviors may take time to manifest. Second, despite a high rate of female workforce participation, Portugal continues to struggle with a widening gender pay gap, which increased to 11.4% in 2021 (PORDATA, 2023). This indicates persistent challenges in achieving full gender equality in the workplace.
Citations:
INE. 2023. “Indicadores da Saúde.” https://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&userLoadSave=Load&userTableOrder=11485&tipoSeleccao=1&contexto=pq&selTab=tab1&submitLoad=true
SNS. 2023. “Governo cria programa de acesso universal a bombas de insulina de nova geração.” https://www.sns.gov.pt/noticias/2023/05/31/governo-cria-programa-de-acesso-universal-a-bombas-de-insulina-de-nova-geracao/
CRP. Constituição da República Portuguesa, artigo 64º (Capítulo II, Parte I).
Diário de Notícias. 2023. “Utentes sem médico de família aumentam 29% num ano.”
https://www.dn.pt/sociedade/utentes-sem-medico-de-familia-aumentam-29-num-ano–16375028.html
OECD. 2021. Portugal: Country Health Profile 2021, State of Health in the EU. Paris: OECD Publishing/Brussels: European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies.
https://health.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-12/2021_chp_pt_english.pdf
DRE. 2023. Resolution of the Council of Ministers no. 92/2023 – Aprova os Planos de Ação no âmbito da Estratégia Nacional para a Igualdade e a Não Discriminação – Portugal + Igual, para o período de 2023-2026. https://files.diariodarepublica.pt/1s/2023/08/15700/0001200092.pdf
Graph View
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
10
9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
8
7
6
7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
4
3
4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
In Portugal, the social security system provides various benefits related to parental leave aimed at ensuring job protection and adequate wages. These benefits include parental allowances, extended parental allowances, and parental social allowances to compensate parents with insufficient remuneration records. The family support system also offers paid leave for parents caring for sick children and elderly family members requiring assistance.
In 2023, as part of the “Decent Work Agenda” initiative, additional measures were implemented to harmonize the personal, family, and professional aspects of workers’ lives, primarily through modifications to parental leave (Law 53/2023, DR 129/2023). The approved changes now permit parents to stay home with children up to 12 months old, receiving allowances ranging from 90% to 40% of gross salary, with the option to combine parental leave with part-time work.
The government is intensifying efforts to achieve universal access to affordable and accessible childcare for preschool-aged children through the “Creche Feliz” program (DRE, 2022). Since 2022, children born after September 2021 have had access to free daycare. Initially applicable to public and social sector daycares, the program was later extended to the private sector. However, challenges persist, as the program has yet to fully address existing needs, with a shortage of available daycare places – meeting only half of the demand (Expresso, 2023).
Furthermore, the government has expanded coverage and financial support for families intending to have children, promoting economic stability. This is achieved through child benefits, tax credits for taxpayers with dependent children (especially those with multiple children), and a recent addition for lower-income families known as the “Child Guarantee” (Social Security Institute, 2023).
However, as the country’s aging demographics reflects, a considerable gap remains in ensuring that policies provide sufficient economic and financial stability for families and individuals to have children. This issue is compounded by wage inequality between men and women, as a recent study indicates (Faria, 2023).
Citations:
DRE. 2023. Lei n.º 53/2023: Procede à regulamentação da Agenda do Trabalho Digno. Diário da República n.º 129/2023, Série I de 2023-07-05.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/decreto-lei/53-2023-215210816
Expresso. 2023. “Não há vagas nas creches e pais já equacionam despedir-se para ficar com filhos.” 05 de setembro de 2023.
https://expresso.pt/sociedade/ensino/2023-09-05-Nao-ha-vagas-nas-creches-e-pais-ja-equacionam-despedir-se-para-ficar-com-filhos-7d51356c
Social Security Institute. 2023. “Guia prático – garantia para a infância.” Departamento de Prestações e Contribuições, 26 de janeiro de 2023.
https://www.seg-social.pt/documents/10152/19882026/4004+-+Garantia+para+a+infancia/6126c563-7fcc-4695-a0f2-0b5af03c113d
DRE. 2022. Ordinance No. 198/2022 – Regulamenta as condições específicas de concretização da medida da gratuitidade das creches e creches familiares, integradas no sistema de cooperação, bem como das amas do Instituto da Segurança Social, I. P.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/portaria/198-2022-186721643
In 2023, as part of the “Decent Work Agenda” initiative, additional measures were implemented to harmonize the personal, family, and professional aspects of workers’ lives, primarily through modifications to parental leave (Law 53/2023, DR 129/2023). The approved changes now permit parents to stay home with children up to 12 months old, receiving allowances ranging from 90% to 40% of gross salary, with the option to combine parental leave with part-time work.
The government is intensifying efforts to achieve universal access to affordable and accessible childcare for preschool-aged children through the “Creche Feliz” program (DRE, 2022). Since 2022, children born after September 2021 have had access to free daycare. Initially applicable to public and social sector daycares, the program was later extended to the private sector. However, challenges persist, as the program has yet to fully address existing needs, with a shortage of available daycare places – meeting only half of the demand (Expresso, 2023).
Furthermore, the government has expanded coverage and financial support for families intending to have children, promoting economic stability. This is achieved through child benefits, tax credits for taxpayers with dependent children (especially those with multiple children), and a recent addition for lower-income families known as the “Child Guarantee” (Social Security Institute, 2023).
However, as the country’s aging demographics reflects, a considerable gap remains in ensuring that policies provide sufficient economic and financial stability for families and individuals to have children. This issue is compounded by wage inequality between men and women, as a recent study indicates (Faria, 2023).
Citations:
DRE. 2023. Lei n.º 53/2023: Procede à regulamentação da Agenda do Trabalho Digno. Diário da República n.º 129/2023, Série I de 2023-07-05.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/decreto-lei/53-2023-215210816
Expresso. 2023. “Não há vagas nas creches e pais já equacionam despedir-se para ficar com filhos.” 05 de setembro de 2023.
https://expresso.pt/sociedade/ensino/2023-09-05-Nao-ha-vagas-nas-creches-e-pais-ja-equacionam-despedir-se-para-ficar-com-filhos-7d51356c
Social Security Institute. 2023. “Guia prático – garantia para a infância.” Departamento de Prestações e Contribuições, 26 de janeiro de 2023.
https://www.seg-social.pt/documents/10152/19882026/4004+-+Garantia+para+a+infancia/6126c563-7fcc-4695-a0f2-0b5af03c113d
DRE. 2022. Ordinance No. 198/2022 – Regulamenta as condições específicas de concretização da medida da gratuitidade das creches e creches familiares, integradas no sistema de cooperação, bem como das amas do Instituto da Segurança Social, I. P.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/portaria/198-2022-186721643
Graph View
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
To address poverty among senior citizens, recent pension reforms in Portugal have introduced measures to ensure a basic level of financial security for new retirees. Eligible pensioners who have contributed to the mandatory social insurance scheme are guaranteed a minimum pension correlated with their career duration. This serves as a crucial safety net. Additionally, the Portuguese pension system aims to provide adequate income in old age for individuals with non-standard or interrupted employment histories through means-tested benefits. These benefits are a key component of the social security system’s solidarity subsystem. They represent the non-contributory segment designed to combat poverty and social exclusion, including among pensioners. These benefits cater to situations of verified need and aim to offset insufficiencies in contributions or other social security benefits.
Key examples of provisions for old-age income in Portugal include the old-age social pension and the solidarity supplement for the elderly. The old-age social pension is a non-contributory, means-tested pension designated for lower-income elderly individuals. It is available to those who reach the legal age for the old-age pension, are not eligible for the main benefit, and are in a state of economic need. However, the actual amount provided is small: €245.79 per month (Segurança Social, 2024). The solidarity supplement for the elderly is another non-contributory, means-tested benefit aimed at assisting pensioners with low incomes who have attained the legal retirement age. The value is €21.39 for pensioners aged below 70 and €42.78 for pensioners aged 70 or above (Segurança Social, 2024). Recipients of this supplement may also qualify for additional health benefits and extraordinary social support for energy consumers, such as subsidized electricity and natural gas tariffs. These measures collectively demonstrate Portugal’s commitment to supporting its elderly population, particularly those who are most vulnerable.
The social security pension system also aims to help all citizens meet their basic needs through the social integration income – a cash benefit ensuring individuals and their family members have adequate resources for basic needs, facilitating their gradual social and professional integration, if applicable.
While pension benefits have increased in recent years, particularly for lower-income pensioners, they still fall short in effectively preventing a high rate of poverty among senior citizens. The poverty rate among individuals aged over 65 was 17% in 2022 (PORDATA, 2023).
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “Taxa de risco de pobreza por grupo etário: antes e após transferências sociais.”
https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/taxa+de+risco+de+pobreza+por+grupo+etario+antes+e+apos+transferencias+sociais-3009
Segurança Social, I.P. 2024. “Pensão Social de Velhice.” https://www.seg-social.pt/pensao-social-de-velhice1
Key examples of provisions for old-age income in Portugal include the old-age social pension and the solidarity supplement for the elderly. The old-age social pension is a non-contributory, means-tested pension designated for lower-income elderly individuals. It is available to those who reach the legal age for the old-age pension, are not eligible for the main benefit, and are in a state of economic need. However, the actual amount provided is small: €245.79 per month (Segurança Social, 2024). The solidarity supplement for the elderly is another non-contributory, means-tested benefit aimed at assisting pensioners with low incomes who have attained the legal retirement age. The value is €21.39 for pensioners aged below 70 and €42.78 for pensioners aged 70 or above (Segurança Social, 2024). Recipients of this supplement may also qualify for additional health benefits and extraordinary social support for energy consumers, such as subsidized electricity and natural gas tariffs. These measures collectively demonstrate Portugal’s commitment to supporting its elderly population, particularly those who are most vulnerable.
The social security pension system also aims to help all citizens meet their basic needs through the social integration income – a cash benefit ensuring individuals and their family members have adequate resources for basic needs, facilitating their gradual social and professional integration, if applicable.
While pension benefits have increased in recent years, particularly for lower-income pensioners, they still fall short in effectively preventing a high rate of poverty among senior citizens. The poverty rate among individuals aged over 65 was 17% in 2022 (PORDATA, 2023).
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “Taxa de risco de pobreza por grupo etário: antes e após transferências sociais.”
https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/taxa+de+risco+de+pobreza+por+grupo+etario+antes+e+apos+transferencias+sociais-3009
Segurança Social, I.P. 2024. “Pensão Social de Velhice.” https://www.seg-social.pt/pensao-social-de-velhice1
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
Portugal’s pension policy aims to balance intergenerational equity, encourage continued employment, and maintain financial sustainability. However, it faces significant challenges regarding the long-term viability of the pension system. These challenges potentially compromise its goals and leave it vulnerable to future demographic and economic shifts.
In Portugal, workers who continue their professional activities at or beyond the legal retirement age are rewarded with a pension bonus, the value of which is contingent on their years of contributions. This creates a clear incentive for prolonged workforce participation. Conversely, early retirement is possible before reaching the legal age, but it usually comes with a penalty, resulting in a reduced pension.
Since 2016, the legal retirement age has been dynamically linked to changes in life expectancy at 65. This system, known as the sustainability factor, automatically adjusts the value of pensions based on demographic trends. It factors in the positive trajectory of average life expectancy, recalculating pension benefits downward to account for an extended retirement period. However, this penalty for increased life expectancy is designed to affect only those who do not proportionally delay their retirement. In 2023, the official retirement age was set at 66 years and four months, and this remains unchanged in 2024.
Despite implementing the sustainability factor, Portugal’s pension system faces medium- and long-term financial challenges, impacting its intergenerational equity. Between 1995 and 2021, pension expenditures as a percentage of GDP rose from 9.2% to 14.3% – one of the most significant increases in the European Union. The Mercer Global Pension Index Report (2022) reflects this complexity, assigning Portugal an index value of 62.8 out of 100. This value indicates a system with commendable features but also considerable risks that threaten its long-term effectiveness and sustainability.
Looking ahead, the Bank of Portugal’s Economic Bulletin (2023) suggests that pension expenditures might start to decline post-2035, despite an aging population. This anticipated decrease is attributed to a reduction in both the average pension amount and the pension replacement rate. Currently, Portugal’s replacement rate, one of the highest in the Euro Zone, is projected to drop significantly by 2070, potentially aligning with the EU average. However, projections from the Portuguese Government’s 2024 State Budget Proposal indicate these adjustments may not be enough to prevent an imminent financial imbalance in the social security system, where expenses are expected to exceed revenues in the coming decade. This scenario underscores the need for continual reassessment and adaptation of the pension system to ensure its long-term viability and fairness across generations (Ministry of Finance, 2023).
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “Pensões: despesa total em % do PIB.”
https://www.pordata.pt/Europa/Pens%C3%B5es+despesa+total+em+percentagem+do+PIB-1579
Mercer. 2022. “Mercer CFA Institute Global Pension Index 2022.”
https://www.mercer.com/assets/global/en/shared-assets/global/attachments/attachment-2022-global-pension-index-full-report.pdf
Bank of Portugal. 2023. Boletim Económico outubro 2023. Lisboa: Departamento de Estudos Económicos.
https://www.bportugal.pt/sites/default/files/anexos/pdf-boletim/be_out2023_p.pdf
Ministry of Finance. 2023. “Relatório do Orçamento do Estado 2024.”
https://www.portugal.gov.pt/download-ficheiros/ficheiro.aspx?v=%3D%3DBQAAAB%2BLCAAAAAAABAAzNLY0NAQA8%2BjEBAUAAAA%3D
In Portugal, workers who continue their professional activities at or beyond the legal retirement age are rewarded with a pension bonus, the value of which is contingent on their years of contributions. This creates a clear incentive for prolonged workforce participation. Conversely, early retirement is possible before reaching the legal age, but it usually comes with a penalty, resulting in a reduced pension.
Since 2016, the legal retirement age has been dynamically linked to changes in life expectancy at 65. This system, known as the sustainability factor, automatically adjusts the value of pensions based on demographic trends. It factors in the positive trajectory of average life expectancy, recalculating pension benefits downward to account for an extended retirement period. However, this penalty for increased life expectancy is designed to affect only those who do not proportionally delay their retirement. In 2023, the official retirement age was set at 66 years and four months, and this remains unchanged in 2024.
Despite implementing the sustainability factor, Portugal’s pension system faces medium- and long-term financial challenges, impacting its intergenerational equity. Between 1995 and 2021, pension expenditures as a percentage of GDP rose from 9.2% to 14.3% – one of the most significant increases in the European Union. The Mercer Global Pension Index Report (2022) reflects this complexity, assigning Portugal an index value of 62.8 out of 100. This value indicates a system with commendable features but also considerable risks that threaten its long-term effectiveness and sustainability.
Looking ahead, the Bank of Portugal’s Economic Bulletin (2023) suggests that pension expenditures might start to decline post-2035, despite an aging population. This anticipated decrease is attributed to a reduction in both the average pension amount and the pension replacement rate. Currently, Portugal’s replacement rate, one of the highest in the Euro Zone, is projected to drop significantly by 2070, potentially aligning with the EU average. However, projections from the Portuguese Government’s 2024 State Budget Proposal indicate these adjustments may not be enough to prevent an imminent financial imbalance in the social security system, where expenses are expected to exceed revenues in the coming decade. This scenario underscores the need for continual reassessment and adaptation of the pension system to ensure its long-term viability and fairness across generations (Ministry of Finance, 2023).
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “Pensões: despesa total em % do PIB.”
https://www.pordata.pt/Europa/Pens%C3%B5es+despesa+total+em+percentagem+do+PIB-1579
Mercer. 2022. “Mercer CFA Institute Global Pension Index 2022.”
https://www.mercer.com/assets/global/en/shared-assets/global/attachments/attachment-2022-global-pension-index-full-report.pdf
Bank of Portugal. 2023. Boletim Económico outubro 2023. Lisboa: Departamento de Estudos Económicos.
https://www.bportugal.pt/sites/default/files/anexos/pdf-boletim/be_out2023_p.pdf
Ministry of Finance. 2023. “Relatório do Orçamento do Estado 2024.”
https://www.portugal.gov.pt/download-ficheiros/ficheiro.aspx?v=%3D%3DBQAAAB%2BLCAAAAAAABAAzNLY0NAQA8%2BjEBAUAAAA%3D
Graph View
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
10
9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Since 2015, Portugal has seen a significant and accelerating increase in its resident foreign population. According to PORDATA (2023), there was a 12% growth from 2021 to 2022, bringing the total number of foreigners living in Portugal to over 781,000 – nearly 400,000 more than in 2015. This increase is largely due to Portugal’s inclusive policy framework for employed migrants, a result of concerted efforts by the state and civil society to ensure immigrants’ human dignity and complete integration. This is achieved through principles of equity, respect for diversity, and equal opportunities. Crucial to this effort are the National Immigrant Support Centers, local centers, telephone support services offering simultaneous translation, and essential information resources.
In the 2023 Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX), Portugal achieved an impressive third-place ranking with a score of 81 out of 100, distinguishing itself among nations with the most favorable policies for migrant integration. The country’s integration strategy is notably comprehensive, focusing on ensuring equal rights, opportunities, and security for immigrants. The MIPEX report specifically points out that “Portugal has consistently improved since the first MIPEX edition. (…) Portugal also started to address its slight areas of weakness on migrant health and education: the healthcare system is improving access to healthcare and health information, while the education system is better supporting cultural diversity at school” (MIPEX, 2023). Additionally, Portugal’s policies on citizenship are acclaimed as among the best globally. This acclaim is further supported by the most recent European Social Survey, which observes that “Portugal is one of the countries in which respondents report greater openness to immigrants, and which… has seen this trend increase since the year 2000” (European Commission, 2023).
In Portugal, legal immigrants enjoy the same rights, opportunities, and security as citizens. They have the right to work, and their children have access to the education system regardless of their legal status. Moreover, if immigrants believe they have faced discrimination, they can file complaints with the Commission for Equality Against Racial Discrimination (“Comissão para a Igualdade e Contra a Discriminação Racial”) – the institution responsible for enforcing anti-discrimination legislation. However, such complaints rarely lead to significant consequences. The most recent data indicates that in 2022, this Commission received 491 complaints, resulting in only five condemnations, with only four involving a fine. The largest of these fines, imposed on a bank, was a mere €857.80 (Expresso, 2023).
Coupled with the most recent amendments to the Nationality Law in 2018 and 2020 (Republic Diary, 2018 and 2020), which facilitated naturalization, there has been a notable increase in the number of naturalizations. Requests for Portuguese nationality surged by approximately 37% in 2022, reaching a new high of 74,506 requests (Immigration and Border Services, 2023).
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “População estrangeira com estatuto legal de residente: total e por algumas nacionalidades.” https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/populacao+estrangeira+com+estatuto+legal+de+residente+total+e+por+algumas+nacionalidades-24
Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX). 2020. “Key Findings – Portugal, 2019.”
https://www.mipex.eu/portugal
European Commission. 2023. “Portugal: Survey Finds Public Increasingly Tolerant of Migrants.”
https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/news/portugal-survey-finds-public-increasingly-tolerant-migrants_en
Republic Diary. 2018. Organic Law No. 2/2018 – Nona alteração à Lei n.º 37/81, de 3 de outubro, que aprova a Lei da Nacionalidade.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/lei-organica/2-2020-148086464
Republic Diary. 2020. Organic Law No. 2/2020 – Alarga o acesso à nacionalidade originária e à naturalização às pessoas nascidas em território português, procedendo à oitava alteração à Lei n.º 37/81, de 3 de outubro, que aprova a Lei da Nacionalidade.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/lei-organica/2-2018-115643970
Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras. 2023. “Relatório de Imigração, Fronteiras e Asilo 2022.”
https://www.sef.pt/pt/Documents/RIFA2022%20vF2a.pdf
Expresso. 2023. “Queixas por discriminação racial aumentam em Portugal.” https://expresso.pt/sociedade/2023-03-03-Queixas-por-discriminacao-racial-aumentam-em-Portugal-f4d5dc21
In the 2023 Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX), Portugal achieved an impressive third-place ranking with a score of 81 out of 100, distinguishing itself among nations with the most favorable policies for migrant integration. The country’s integration strategy is notably comprehensive, focusing on ensuring equal rights, opportunities, and security for immigrants. The MIPEX report specifically points out that “Portugal has consistently improved since the first MIPEX edition. (…) Portugal also started to address its slight areas of weakness on migrant health and education: the healthcare system is improving access to healthcare and health information, while the education system is better supporting cultural diversity at school” (MIPEX, 2023). Additionally, Portugal’s policies on citizenship are acclaimed as among the best globally. This acclaim is further supported by the most recent European Social Survey, which observes that “Portugal is one of the countries in which respondents report greater openness to immigrants, and which… has seen this trend increase since the year 2000” (European Commission, 2023).
In Portugal, legal immigrants enjoy the same rights, opportunities, and security as citizens. They have the right to work, and their children have access to the education system regardless of their legal status. Moreover, if immigrants believe they have faced discrimination, they can file complaints with the Commission for Equality Against Racial Discrimination (“Comissão para a Igualdade e Contra a Discriminação Racial”) – the institution responsible for enforcing anti-discrimination legislation. However, such complaints rarely lead to significant consequences. The most recent data indicates that in 2022, this Commission received 491 complaints, resulting in only five condemnations, with only four involving a fine. The largest of these fines, imposed on a bank, was a mere €857.80 (Expresso, 2023).
Coupled with the most recent amendments to the Nationality Law in 2018 and 2020 (Republic Diary, 2018 and 2020), which facilitated naturalization, there has been a notable increase in the number of naturalizations. Requests for Portuguese nationality surged by approximately 37% in 2022, reaching a new high of 74,506 requests (Immigration and Border Services, 2023).
Citations:
PORDATA. 2023. “População estrangeira com estatuto legal de residente: total e por algumas nacionalidades.” https://www.pordata.pt/portugal/populacao+estrangeira+com+estatuto+legal+de+residente+total+e+por+algumas+nacionalidades-24
Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX). 2020. “Key Findings – Portugal, 2019.”
https://www.mipex.eu/portugal
European Commission. 2023. “Portugal: Survey Finds Public Increasingly Tolerant of Migrants.”
https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/news/portugal-survey-finds-public-increasingly-tolerant-migrants_en
Republic Diary. 2018. Organic Law No. 2/2018 – Nona alteração à Lei n.º 37/81, de 3 de outubro, que aprova a Lei da Nacionalidade.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/lei-organica/2-2020-148086464
Republic Diary. 2020. Organic Law No. 2/2020 – Alarga o acesso à nacionalidade originária e à naturalização às pessoas nascidas em território português, procedendo à oitava alteração à Lei n.º 37/81, de 3 de outubro, que aprova a Lei da Nacionalidade.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/lei-organica/2-2018-115643970
Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras. 2023. “Relatório de Imigração, Fronteiras e Asilo 2022.”
https://www.sef.pt/pt/Documents/RIFA2022%20vF2a.pdf
Expresso. 2023. “Queixas por discriminação racial aumentam em Portugal.” https://expresso.pt/sociedade/2023-03-03-Queixas-por-discriminacao-racial-aumentam-em-Portugal-f4d5dc21
Graph View
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
Approved in November 2022, the Portuguese Development Cooperation Strategy 2030 serves as the primary framework for guiding the country’s public policy on international development cooperation. This comprehensive strategy, crucial in shaping Portugal’s cooperation policy, addresses conceptual, political, and operational aspects. It is structured into three sections: an overview of the challenges to be addressed, a policy framework outlining principles and priorities, and a strategic action framework detailing specific action plans.
However, there has been no significant shift in the government’s commitment to a global social policy focused on poverty reduction and social protection in low- and middle-income countries. Foreign aid remains a relatively minor aspect of Portugal’s foreign policy, which primarily emphasizes economic diplomacy to stimulate the national economy and exports. Portugal is among the OECD countries contributing the least proportion of its income to development cooperation, falling well short of the international target for Public Development Assistance by 2030 (Plataforma Portuguesa das ONGD, 2022).
Nonetheless, Portugal is not entirely disengaged from efforts to build capacity for poverty reduction in developing countries. The country continues to provide foreign aid, especially to Portuguese-speaking countries in Africa and East Timor. The 2030 Strategy maintains a focus on these nations, capitalizing on Portugal’s unique relationship with them. In 2022, Portugal’s official development assistance (ODA) amounted to USD 504.7 million, constituting 0.23% of its gross national income (GNI), marking a 17.5% real-term increase and a rise from 0.18% of GNI in 2021 (OECD, 2022a). However, Portugal’s ODA volume remains modest compared to past performance and other OECD Development Assistance Committee members (OECD, 2022b).
Despite the increase in ODA, Portugal’s involvement in shaping international policies and assuming leadership roles remains limited. The country typically follows rather than leads in international initiatives, and its resources are relatively modest compared to its European Union counterparts. Thus, while Portugal’s intentions are commendable, its aid plays a marginal role in the overall design and implementation of foreign assistance.
Beyond financial and economic contributions, Portugal also participates in security tasks. Its involvement in UN, NATO, and EU security and humanitarian missions, though relatively modest, includes notable support, such as recent aid to Ukraine. In specific situations, like in Guinea-Bissau, Portugal actively contributes to stabilizing national governments, promoting security, and fostering development.
Citations:
DRE. 2022. Resolution of the Council of Ministers no. 121/2022 – Aprova a Estratégia da Cooperação Portuguesa 2030.
https://www.portugal.gov.pt/download-ficheiros/ficheiro.aspx?v=%3d%3dBQAAAB%2bLCAAAAAAABAAzNDYxNQcAkRsTgQUAAAA%3d
Plataforma Portuguesa das ONGD. 2022. Financiamento do Desenvolvimento em tempos de incerteza: o contributo da Cooperação Portuguesa. Lisboa, Dezembro. ISBN 978-989-53439-1-1. https://www.plataformaongd.pt/noticias/relatorio-financiamento-do-desenvolvimento-em-tempos-de-incerteza-o-contributo-da-cooperacao-portuguesa
OECD. 2022a. “Development Co-operation Profiles: Portugal.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/12c61cf7-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/12c61cf7-en#:~:text=Portugal%20allocated%20the%20highest%20share,equal%20to%20USD%209.8%20million
OECD. 2022b. “Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: Portugal 2022.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/550fb40e-en/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/550fb40e-en
However, there has been no significant shift in the government’s commitment to a global social policy focused on poverty reduction and social protection in low- and middle-income countries. Foreign aid remains a relatively minor aspect of Portugal’s foreign policy, which primarily emphasizes economic diplomacy to stimulate the national economy and exports. Portugal is among the OECD countries contributing the least proportion of its income to development cooperation, falling well short of the international target for Public Development Assistance by 2030 (Plataforma Portuguesa das ONGD, 2022).
Nonetheless, Portugal is not entirely disengaged from efforts to build capacity for poverty reduction in developing countries. The country continues to provide foreign aid, especially to Portuguese-speaking countries in Africa and East Timor. The 2030 Strategy maintains a focus on these nations, capitalizing on Portugal’s unique relationship with them. In 2022, Portugal’s official development assistance (ODA) amounted to USD 504.7 million, constituting 0.23% of its gross national income (GNI), marking a 17.5% real-term increase and a rise from 0.18% of GNI in 2021 (OECD, 2022a). However, Portugal’s ODA volume remains modest compared to past performance and other OECD Development Assistance Committee members (OECD, 2022b).
Despite the increase in ODA, Portugal’s involvement in shaping international policies and assuming leadership roles remains limited. The country typically follows rather than leads in international initiatives, and its resources are relatively modest compared to its European Union counterparts. Thus, while Portugal’s intentions are commendable, its aid plays a marginal role in the overall design and implementation of foreign assistance.
Beyond financial and economic contributions, Portugal also participates in security tasks. Its involvement in UN, NATO, and EU security and humanitarian missions, though relatively modest, includes notable support, such as recent aid to Ukraine. In specific situations, like in Guinea-Bissau, Portugal actively contributes to stabilizing national governments, promoting security, and fostering development.
Citations:
DRE. 2022. Resolution of the Council of Ministers no. 121/2022 – Aprova a Estratégia da Cooperação Portuguesa 2030.
https://www.portugal.gov.pt/download-ficheiros/ficheiro.aspx?v=%3d%3dBQAAAB%2bLCAAAAAAABAAzNDYxNQcAkRsTgQUAAAA%3d
Plataforma Portuguesa das ONGD. 2022. Financiamento do Desenvolvimento em tempos de incerteza: o contributo da Cooperação Portuguesa. Lisboa, Dezembro. ISBN 978-989-53439-1-1. https://www.plataformaongd.pt/noticias/relatorio-financiamento-do-desenvolvimento-em-tempos-de-incerteza-o-contributo-da-cooperacao-portuguesa
OECD. 2022a. “Development Co-operation Profiles: Portugal.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/12c61cf7-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/12c61cf7-en#:~:text=Portugal%20allocated%20the%20highest%20share,equal%20to%20USD%209.8%20million
OECD. 2022b. “Development Co-operation Peer Reviews: Portugal 2022.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/550fb40e-en/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/550fb40e-en