Vertical Accountability
#9Key Findings
Slovenia falls into the upper-middle ranks internationally (rank 9) in the category of vertical accountability.
Voting rights are universal and equal for all citizens aged 18 or older. Political parties or groups of voters can submit candidate lists. The public broadcasters must provide equal access to all parties, though nonparliamentary parties often have limited media access in practice.
Elections are seen as free and fair, with some shortcomings recently identified for voters abroad. The State Election Commission is regarded as impartial and professional in managing elections. The electoral system is based on proportional representation with a 4% threshold for parliamentary access. Media coverage during the 2022 elections faced some criticism for bias.
Parliamentary seats are reserved for Hungarian and Italian national minorities. Polarization and ideological divergence has increased in recent years, with some parties showing democratic backsliding. However, cross-party collaboration has proved possible during crises. The Law on Access to Public Information gives citizens access to official data.
Voting rights are universal and equal for all citizens aged 18 or older. Political parties or groups of voters can submit candidate lists. The public broadcasters must provide equal access to all parties, though nonparliamentary parties often have limited media access in practice.
Elections are seen as free and fair, with some shortcomings recently identified for voters abroad. The State Election Commission is regarded as impartial and professional in managing elections. The electoral system is based on proportional representation with a 4% threshold for parliamentary access. Media coverage during the 2022 elections faced some criticism for bias.
Parliamentary seats are reserved for Hungarian and Italian national minorities. Polarization and ideological divergence has increased in recent years, with some parties showing democratic backsliding. However, cross-party collaboration has proved possible during crises. The Law on Access to Public Information gives citizens access to official data.
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To what extent is political competition among candidates and political parties free and fair?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to effective political competition.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles to effective political competition.
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3
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to effective political competition.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles to effective political competition.
In Slovenia, the right to vote is universal and equal. Every citizen aged 18 or older is eligible to vote and run for election, regardless of social, ethnic, economic, or other affiliations. No financial deposit is necessary for registration or candidacy, and citizens are automatically enrolled upon reaching voting age. Slovenia ranked eighth globally in voter registration quality from 2012 to 2022, according to the Electoral Integrity Project (2023).
Political parties and voter groups can nominate candidates for various elections. For the National Assembly, a party may submit lists of candidates in all eight constituencies with the support of at least three National Assembly members or submit a list in a single constituency with backing from at least 100 voters. Alternatively, voters may propose a list in a single constituency with the support of at least 1,000 residents. Objections regarding the nomination process can be raised with the constituency electoral commission, and decisions are subject to review by the state electoral commission. Similar procedures apply to presidential elections.
In municipal elections, candidates for mayor or council members can be nominated by political parties or voters, with the required support contingent on the municipality’s size. The law regulates campaign financing for electoral and referendum campaigns, mandating financial transparency through reporting to the Slovenian Agency for Public Law and Related Services, with oversight from the Court of Audit. However, challenges persist, particularly concerning the regulation of third-party campaigning, including foreign entities.
Public broadcasting must provide equal access to all parties and candidate lists for debates and presentations, although non-parliamentary parties often have limited media access compared to established parties. While television remains a primary source of political information, printed media influence is waning, and online platforms are gaining prominence. Slovenian public television tends to create formats that favor the frontrunners. Media coverage in 2022 faced criticism for political bias, especially following personnel changes in public broadcasting. Nonetheless, media pluralism ensures voters have access to diverse political perspectives.
Citations:
Electoral Integrity Project. 2023. “Electoral Integrity Global Report 2023.” https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/global-report-2023?rq=Slovenia
Electoral Integrity Project. 2023. “Register Every Voter.” https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58533f31bebafbe99c85dc9b/t/65664c9fe91d017b11f8752e/1701203104332/Register%2BEvery%2BVoter%2BReport_DIGITAL.pdf
OSCE. 2022. “Parliamentary Elections, 24 April 2022, Slovenia.” https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/slovenia/514078
Državni zbor Republike Slovenije. 2024. “Preiskovalna komisija o ugotavljanju politične odgovornosti nosilcev javnih funkcij zaradi domnevnega nezakonitega financiranja političnih strank in strankarske politične propagande v medijih pred in med volitvami poslancev v Državni zbor leta 2022 s finančnimi sredstvi podjetij v državni lasti, državnih institucij ter subjektov iz tujine (Commission of Inquiry on establishing the political responsibility of public office holders for the alleged illegal financing of political parties and party political propaganda in the media before and during the 2022 elections to the National Assembly with the financial resources of state-owned enterprises, state institutions and foreign entities).” https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/pos/dt/izbranDT/!ut/p/z1/jY9NC4JAFEV_iwu3vqemfexGIkkrSjFtNqExjYI6MlpCv76wVVDS293LORceUEiA1um94GlXiDotX_lE7bOzC6y17-rohvoKD9PjMSCurePegngAvLlPvAEwAgsPS8PZhmjixEGg__j448if_ghAx-c9oLwU2ftVUmfmjAOV7Mokk9pNvuq865p2oaKKfd9rXAheMu0iKhW_KbloO0g-SWiqKEoeGxYTRXkC991ZmA
RTVSLO.si. 2023. “Poročilo komisije o financiranju političnih strank ‘se bere kot politični triler’.” https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/porocilo-komisije-o-financiranju-politicnih-strank-se-bere-kot-politicni-triler/689451
European Parliament. 2022. “EU Youth Survey; The Source of Information of Young Slovenes about Politics.” https://www.europarl.europa.eu/at-your-service/en/be-heard/eurobarometer/youth-survey-2021
Political parties and voter groups can nominate candidates for various elections. For the National Assembly, a party may submit lists of candidates in all eight constituencies with the support of at least three National Assembly members or submit a list in a single constituency with backing from at least 100 voters. Alternatively, voters may propose a list in a single constituency with the support of at least 1,000 residents. Objections regarding the nomination process can be raised with the constituency electoral commission, and decisions are subject to review by the state electoral commission. Similar procedures apply to presidential elections.
In municipal elections, candidates for mayor or council members can be nominated by political parties or voters, with the required support contingent on the municipality’s size. The law regulates campaign financing for electoral and referendum campaigns, mandating financial transparency through reporting to the Slovenian Agency for Public Law and Related Services, with oversight from the Court of Audit. However, challenges persist, particularly concerning the regulation of third-party campaigning, including foreign entities.
Public broadcasting must provide equal access to all parties and candidate lists for debates and presentations, although non-parliamentary parties often have limited media access compared to established parties. While television remains a primary source of political information, printed media influence is waning, and online platforms are gaining prominence. Slovenian public television tends to create formats that favor the frontrunners. Media coverage in 2022 faced criticism for political bias, especially following personnel changes in public broadcasting. Nonetheless, media pluralism ensures voters have access to diverse political perspectives.
Citations:
Electoral Integrity Project. 2023. “Electoral Integrity Global Report 2023.” https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/global-report-2023?rq=Slovenia
Electoral Integrity Project. 2023. “Register Every Voter.” https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58533f31bebafbe99c85dc9b/t/65664c9fe91d017b11f8752e/1701203104332/Register%2BEvery%2BVoter%2BReport_DIGITAL.pdf
OSCE. 2022. “Parliamentary Elections, 24 April 2022, Slovenia.” https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/slovenia/514078
Državni zbor Republike Slovenije. 2024. “Preiskovalna komisija o ugotavljanju politične odgovornosti nosilcev javnih funkcij zaradi domnevnega nezakonitega financiranja političnih strank in strankarske politične propagande v medijih pred in med volitvami poslancev v Državni zbor leta 2022 s finančnimi sredstvi podjetij v državni lasti, državnih institucij ter subjektov iz tujine (Commission of Inquiry on establishing the political responsibility of public office holders for the alleged illegal financing of political parties and party political propaganda in the media before and during the 2022 elections to the National Assembly with the financial resources of state-owned enterprises, state institutions and foreign entities).” https://www.dz-rs.si/wps/portal/Home/pos/dt/izbranDT/!ut/p/z1/jY9NC4JAFEV_iwu3vqemfexGIkkrSjFtNqExjYI6MlpCv76wVVDS293LORceUEiA1um94GlXiDotX_lE7bOzC6y17-rohvoKD9PjMSCurePegngAvLlPvAEwAgsPS8PZhmjixEGg__j448if_ghAx-c9oLwU2ftVUmfmjAOV7Mokk9pNvuq865p2oaKKfd9rXAheMu0iKhW_KbloO0g-SWiqKEoeGxYTRXkC991ZmA
RTVSLO.si. 2023. “Poročilo komisije o financiranju političnih strank ‘se bere kot politični triler’.” https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/porocilo-komisije-o-financiranju-politicnih-strank-se-bere-kot-politicni-triler/689451
European Parliament. 2022. “EU Youth Survey; The Source of Information of Young Slovenes about Politics.” https://www.europarl.europa.eu/at-your-service/en/be-heard/eurobarometer/youth-survey-2021
To what extent can all citizens, both in legal terms (de jure) and in practice (de facto), exercise their right to vote?
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There are no significant barriers, by law or in practice, that hinder citizens or specific groups in society from exercising their right to vote.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles to voting.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to voting.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles that substantially hinder voting.
The right to vote in Slovenia is universal and equal. This right extends to people with criminal convictions and, since 2024, to individuals under guardianship due to mental and psychosocial problems. Previously, these individuals faced restrictions based on court rulings regarding their ability to understand the meaning, purpose, and impact of elections, which deprived around 3,000 voters of their right to vote. The law also outlines the conditions under which foreigners have voting rights.
Parliamentary, presidential, and local elections are held regularly. Numerous polling stations throughout the country allow voters easy access without queuing. Voting is organized in hospitals, prisons, and retirement homes via postal voting. Early voting and mobile voting are available for sick and housebound voters. Special polling stations are set up in each of the 88 districts for voters who are outside their residences on election day.
Voters who are temporarily abroad can register to vote by mail, including via consular offices or at diplomatic missions (embassies). Those with permanent residence abroad have similar options for casting their vote. All voters with a registered permanent residence outside the country automatically receive a ballot paper.
Although the Electoral Integrity Project (2023) rated the 2022 Slovenian elections highly for integrity, certain shortcomings concerning voting from abroad were identified. Some complaints were made about the late distribution of ballot papers to voters abroad due to delays in finalizing candidate lists after appeals were lodged with the Supreme Court.
Elections are administered by election authorities at various levels under the direction of the State Election Commission, which is regarded as capable, professional, and impartial by various organizations (e.g., EIP, OSCE) and enjoys public confidence. The election procedures; vote counting; verification of results; and resolution of complaints are conducted transparently, impartially, and appropriately through official procedures. Nevertheless, in 2022, the commission appealed for more staff and financial resources.
Citations:
Electoral Integrity Project. 2023. “Electoral Integrity Global Report 2023.” https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/global-report-2023?rq=Slovenia
OSCE. 2022. “Parliamentary Elections, 24 April 2022, Slovenia.” https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/slovenia/514078
RTVSLO.si. 2024. “Spremembe zakona v veljavi: volilno pravico imajo odslej tudi osebe pod skrbništvom.” https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/spremembe-zakona-v-veljavi-volilno-pravico-imajo-odslej-tudi-osebe-pod-skrbnistvom/697859
Parliamentary, presidential, and local elections are held regularly. Numerous polling stations throughout the country allow voters easy access without queuing. Voting is organized in hospitals, prisons, and retirement homes via postal voting. Early voting and mobile voting are available for sick and housebound voters. Special polling stations are set up in each of the 88 districts for voters who are outside their residences on election day.
Voters who are temporarily abroad can register to vote by mail, including via consular offices or at diplomatic missions (embassies). Those with permanent residence abroad have similar options for casting their vote. All voters with a registered permanent residence outside the country automatically receive a ballot paper.
Although the Electoral Integrity Project (2023) rated the 2022 Slovenian elections highly for integrity, certain shortcomings concerning voting from abroad were identified. Some complaints were made about the late distribution of ballot papers to voters abroad due to delays in finalizing candidate lists after appeals were lodged with the Supreme Court.
Elections are administered by election authorities at various levels under the direction of the State Election Commission, which is regarded as capable, professional, and impartial by various organizations (e.g., EIP, OSCE) and enjoys public confidence. The election procedures; vote counting; verification of results; and resolution of complaints are conducted transparently, impartially, and appropriately through official procedures. Nevertheless, in 2022, the commission appealed for more staff and financial resources.
Citations:
Electoral Integrity Project. 2023. “Electoral Integrity Global Report 2023.” https://www.electoralintegrityproject.com/global-report-2023?rq=Slovenia
OSCE. 2022. “Parliamentary Elections, 24 April 2022, Slovenia.” https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/slovenia/514078
RTVSLO.si. 2024. “Spremembe zakona v veljavi: volilno pravico imajo odslej tudi osebe pod skrbništvom.” https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/spremembe-zakona-v-veljavi-volilno-pravico-imajo-odslej-tudi-osebe-pod-skrbnistvom/697859
Graph View
To what extent do parties articulate and aggregate all societal interests?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to achieving effective societal integration.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose no significant barriers to achieving effective societal integration.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose some significant barriers to achieving effective societal integration.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose various significant barriers to achieving effective societal integration.
The electoral system is based on proportional representation with a 4% threshold for entry into the National Assembly of the RS (lower house of parliament). Slovenia is divided into eight constituencies, each subdivided into 11 sub-constituencies (districts). In practice, due to the seat distribution model, not every district always has its representative. Representatives of the Hungarian and Italian national minorities compete for a reserved seat, one for each group. The electoral system allows several parties to enter parliament – in practice, between 7 and 9. However, in 2022, only five parties passed the threshold, mainly due to tactical voting favoring the winning party. These parties represent important and diverse interests in society.
As the Manifesto Project shows, the manifestos of political parties differ in length, policy domains and policies addressed, importance, and solutions offered. The manifestos of the parties competing in the 2022 elections were publicly accessible, mainly via the parties’ websites. Both libertarian-authoritarian (GAL-TAN) and left-right economic cleavages are evident in the party system. Some parties in this system have significant populist elements. There is also considerable polarization caused by certain political parties (e.g., SDS) that have contributed to the tactical voting of center-left voters to defeat the former ruling party and its government in the 2022 elections. Established parties have developed a territorial organizational structure, although there is an important difference between the established and institutionalized and the new political parties in this respect.
Citations:
Chapel Hill Expert Survey. 2024. “Chess Interactive.” https://chesdata.shinyapps.io/Shiny-CHES/
Krašovec, A., and Lajh, D. 2024. “Ali je ‘slon v prostoru‘? Evropska unija in strankarsko tekmovanje.” In M. Novak and E. Nacevska, eds., Parlamentarne volitve 2022. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede (in print).
Manifesto Project. 2024. “Manifesto Project Database.” https://manifesto-project.wzb.eu
The PopuList. 2024. “Country Reports.” https://popu-list.org/applications/
As the Manifesto Project shows, the manifestos of political parties differ in length, policy domains and policies addressed, importance, and solutions offered. The manifestos of the parties competing in the 2022 elections were publicly accessible, mainly via the parties’ websites. Both libertarian-authoritarian (GAL-TAN) and left-right economic cleavages are evident in the party system. Some parties in this system have significant populist elements. There is also considerable polarization caused by certain political parties (e.g., SDS) that have contributed to the tactical voting of center-left voters to defeat the former ruling party and its government in the 2022 elections. Established parties have developed a territorial organizational structure, although there is an important difference between the established and institutionalized and the new political parties in this respect.
Citations:
Chapel Hill Expert Survey. 2024. “Chess Interactive.” https://chesdata.shinyapps.io/Shiny-CHES/
Krašovec, A., and Lajh, D. 2024. “Ali je ‘slon v prostoru‘? Evropska unija in strankarsko tekmovanje.” In M. Novak and E. Nacevska, eds., Parlamentarne volitve 2022. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede (in print).
Manifesto Project. 2024. “Manifesto Project Database.” https://manifesto-project.wzb.eu
The PopuList. 2024. “Country Reports.” https://popu-list.org/applications/
To what extent do political parties retain their ability to enable cross-party cooperation in policymaking and implementation?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose no significant barriers to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose some significant barriers to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
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Existing obstacles in the party system, by law and in practice, pose various significant barriers to achieving effective cross-party cooperation.
Since the 1990s, the ideological profiling between parties and within society in Slovenia has been clear; this also applies to the period before World War II. However, this divergence has increased more recently, partly because certain cleavages continue to overlap. Although the libertarian-authoritarian cleavage was particularly evident in the 1990s, since the first decade of the 21st century, the economic cleavage has also become more significant. This change was mainly a consequence of the disintegration of the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (LDS) party, which had long been in office and occupied the center. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Drnovšek, the LDS was able to form ideologically mixed coalitions aimed at maintaining political stability.
The Slovenian Democratic Party (SDS), initially founded at the end of the 1980s as a center-left social democratic party, transformed into a conservative party at the turn of the 21st century. Since 1993, the party has been led by Janez Janša, a particularly polarizing figure in Slovenian politics. This has been demonstrated several times over the last two decades, as center-left voters have focused on defeating Janez Janša. A considerable part of the electoral success of new center-left parties is based on this strategy to attract voters.
Despite ideological polarization, there have been instances in the past where decision-makers have managed to overcome these divides. Examples include the declaration of Slovenia’s independence, the country’s accession to the EU and NATO, and the tough decisions made during the financial and economic crisis, as well as early in the COVID-19 pandemic. However, in the later phases of the pandemic, cooperation became untenable, primarily due to the democratic backsliding under the Janša government (which several democratic watchdog organizations had warned about). More recently, effective cross-party cooperation in addressing the consequences of the catastrophic floods in August 2023 has demonstrated, at least temporarily, that collaboration on critical issues is still possible.
Citations:
Fink-Hafner, Danica. 2020. “Destabilizacija slovenskega strankarskega sistema po letu 2000.” In Krašovec, A. & Deželan, T., eds., Volilno leto, 5-35. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede.
Haughton, T., and A. Krašovec. 2022. “Slovenia Voted Against an Illiberal Leader and For an Untested Party: Why Did a Brand-New Party Win the Parliamentary Election?” The Washington Post April 26.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/04/26/slovenia-jansa-golob-backsliding-democracy/
Malčič, Matevž. 2023. “Political Polarisation in Slovenia and Its Effects on Liberal Democracy.” Teorija in praksa 60 (1): 24-47.
The Slovenian Democratic Party (SDS), initially founded at the end of the 1980s as a center-left social democratic party, transformed into a conservative party at the turn of the 21st century. Since 1993, the party has been led by Janez Janša, a particularly polarizing figure in Slovenian politics. This has been demonstrated several times over the last two decades, as center-left voters have focused on defeating Janez Janša. A considerable part of the electoral success of new center-left parties is based on this strategy to attract voters.
Despite ideological polarization, there have been instances in the past where decision-makers have managed to overcome these divides. Examples include the declaration of Slovenia’s independence, the country’s accession to the EU and NATO, and the tough decisions made during the financial and economic crisis, as well as early in the COVID-19 pandemic. However, in the later phases of the pandemic, cooperation became untenable, primarily due to the democratic backsliding under the Janša government (which several democratic watchdog organizations had warned about). More recently, effective cross-party cooperation in addressing the consequences of the catastrophic floods in August 2023 has demonstrated, at least temporarily, that collaboration on critical issues is still possible.
Citations:
Fink-Hafner, Danica. 2020. “Destabilizacija slovenskega strankarskega sistema po letu 2000.” In Krašovec, A. & Deželan, T., eds., Volilno leto, 5-35. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede.
Haughton, T., and A. Krašovec. 2022. “Slovenia Voted Against an Illiberal Leader and For an Untested Party: Why Did a Brand-New Party Win the Parliamentary Election?” The Washington Post April 26.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/04/26/slovenia-jansa-golob-backsliding-democracy/
Malčič, Matevž. 2023. “Political Polarisation in Slovenia and Its Effects on Liberal Democracy.” Teorija in praksa 60 (1): 24-47.
Graph View
To what extent can citizens and residents access official information?
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There are no barriers, by law or in practice, for citizens seeking to access official information.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles for citizens seeking to access official information.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles for citizens seeking to access official information.
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Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose many/various significant obstacles for citizens seeking to access official information.
The Law on Access to Public Information from 2003 guarantees citizens free and easy access to official information, with only a few exceptions for national security and classified data. Citizens can request public information by telephone, email, or in writing. The authorities must decide on the request without delay, but at the latest, within 20 working days. This right is frequently exercised, including by journalists in their role as the fourth estate. These cases attract significant public attention. In 2023, Slovenia finally ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Access to Official Documents, having already signed it in 2009.
As an autonomous institution, the Information Commissioner is responsible for guaranteeing citizens and media access to information while ensuring personal data protection. It can use various appeal mechanisms or supervisory powers to guarantee citizens’ access. A report published by the commissioner shows that in 2022, 696 complaints were received regarding access to public information, compared to 639 in 2021. The total number of complaints for silence on the part of the concerned institution was slightly lower in 2022 (241) than in 2021 (244). The number of complaints against state authorities decreased in 2022 (283 complaints in 2022 compared to 338 in 2021). However, state authorities remained the largest group of institutions against which the commissioner received the most complaints.
Citations:
Informacijski pooblaščenec. 2023. Letno poročilo Informacijskega pooblaščenca 2022. https://www.ip-rs.si/fileadmin/user_upload/Pdf/porocila/LP2022.pdf
As an autonomous institution, the Information Commissioner is responsible for guaranteeing citizens and media access to information while ensuring personal data protection. It can use various appeal mechanisms or supervisory powers to guarantee citizens’ access. A report published by the commissioner shows that in 2022, 696 complaints were received regarding access to public information, compared to 639 in 2021. The total number of complaints for silence on the part of the concerned institution was slightly lower in 2022 (241) than in 2021 (244). The number of complaints against state authorities decreased in 2022 (283 complaints in 2022 compared to 338 in 2021). However, state authorities remained the largest group of institutions against which the commissioner received the most complaints.
Citations:
Informacijski pooblaščenec. 2023. Letno poročilo Informacijskega pooblaščenca 2022. https://www.ip-rs.si/fileadmin/user_upload/Pdf/porocila/LP2022.pdf