Spain

Spain falls into the sample’s middle ranks (rank 16) in the category of vertical accountability.

Registration procedures for candidates and political parties in Spain are transparent and fair. All citizens 18 and over can vote, aside from some felons. Citizens are automatically included in the electoral register, Candidate lists must ensure a minimum representation of 40% for each gender.

The party financing law was reformed in 2015 after various scandals, setting spending limits and restricting business contributions. Parties and candidates are required to maintain accurate financial records, with compliance monitored by the Central Election Commission. The 2023 election was peaceful, though rhetoric was often harsh.

Several nationalist parties have significant national influence, or advocate independence for individual regions. Polarization has hindered cross-party agreements, but coalition governments have become more common. A public information law allows access to public documents, but response times have lengthened.

Spain falls into the sample’s lower-middle ranks (rank 20) with regard to diagonal accountability.

The media landscape is diverse and free. Political disputes have complicated the process of appointing a public broadcasting president. Various mechanisms such as licensing and institutional advertising enable some political influence even over private-sector media decisions.

While the media is strongly concentrated among a few groups, a broad spectrum of views is represented. The public media are legally required to reflect the country’s diversity. The constitution protects public assembly rights, but a controversial public security law has set some assembly restrictions.

Trade unions and employers’ associations routinely consult with the government in a neo-corporatist model, with substantial influence over policy. Noneconomic groups are comparatively weak, with their influence largely depending on participation within political parties. Environmental organizations have a growing impact on public opinion.

Spain falls into the middle ranks internationally (rank 17) in the category of horizontal accountability.

The Court of Audit is responsible for auditing the state’s accounts, electoral and party funding, and public sector financial management. It is not wholly independent of political parties. The independent Spanish Data Protection Agency conducts audits on data protection issues, with its findings often taken up by the media.

The Spanish judiciary is independent and capable of ensuring that the government and administration act according to the law. Appointments to key judicial bodies, which require a three-fifths parliamentary majority, have been hampered by political fragmentation. This has undermined judicial performance.

Civil rights are broadly respected, and antidiscrimination laws are very broad. Corruption levels have declined since the bursting of the real estate bubble, in part to prosecution of corrupt officials. Parliamentarians have limited resources, but adequate powers to monitor the executive and participate in shaping policy.

In the category of coordination, Spain falls into the sample’s upper-middle ranks (rank 12).

The Government Office and Prime Minister’s Office play key roles in evaluating ministry proposals, with the former focusing on technical issues and the latter on political and strategic aspects. While ministries are formally autonomous, the prime minister’s team is often consulted during policy preparation.

Senior bureaucrats from the various ministries routinely meet to coordinate policy initiatives. However, each ministry tends to act only within its area of competence. Informal meetings across levels of government take place frequently. The lack of experience with coalition government led to coordination issues during the 2022 – 2023 period.

The central government aims to ensure uniform national standards, but this is not always effective. Regional governments sometimes implement policies independently. Subnational self-government officials frequently express dissatisfaction with the lack of institutionalized participation in central government decision-making processes.

Spain falls into the middle ranks internationally (rank 14) in the category of consensus-building.

The National Foresight and Strategy Office, established in 2020, analyzes future challenges and opportunities to help the country prepare for them. There are no formal mechanisms linking the government with external experts, though ministries often consult scholars and analysts during the early stages of lawmaking.

Employers’ organizations and trade unions have an institutionalized channel for consulting with the government through Economic and Social Council. However, these bodies have recently expressed dissatisfaction with their participation, indicating a lack of government follow-up.

Social welfare participation is more sporadic, and less influential. Leading environmental groups are increasingly involved in expert commissions, public hearings and performance monitoring functions. A centralized online platform provides access to ongoing legislative and government data. The country is ranked high with regard to its open data initiatives.

In the category of sensemaking, Spain falls into the upper-middle ranks internationally (rank 11).

The National Foresight and Strategy Office analyzes future challenges and plans for multiple scenarios. Although its impact on ministerial bureaucracies has been limited, the government in since November 2023 has announced plans to strengthen it.

Preliminary regulatory impact assessments (RIAs) for new laws are sometimes developed by entities other than the executive, with special parliamentary committees or stakeholders occasionally involved in studying particular issues. However, most RIA processes rely on internal ministerial resources, and the outcomes are not always made public.

The RIA framework in Spain does not include sustainability checks, focusing instead on gender impact and administrative costs. Better regulation initiatives have increasingly involved ex post evaluation as well as administrative simplification.

Spain falls into the sample’s upper-middle ranks (rank 11) in the area of economic sustainability.

A circular economy strategy aims to reduce material consumption and waste by 2030. However, Spain’s progress in this area remains slow. The Center for Critical Infrastructure Protection coordinates activities associated with infrastructure protection. An emissions-reduction plan establishes specific national targets, with the strategy broken into sectoral action plans.

A recent labor reform introduced stricter regulations on temporary contracts, while giving firms more hiring and firing flexibility. Unemployment benefits have been made more compatible with training programs. Women’s comparatively low labor force participation rate is likely due to tax disincentives for second earners.

The various autonomous regions have significant tax-system differences. Taxes on low- and medium-income households have been reduced, while those on high-income earners have been increased. Debt levels remain a concern, with observers warning about a large structural deficit. Environmental taxes are lower than the OECD average.

Spain performs well in international comparison (rank 8) in the category of social sustainability.

The education system is decentralized, with the central government setting basic standards and the autonomous regions managing resources and regulations. There are significant differences in financial and human resources per student across regions. All children aged three and above are today legally entitled to a place in a preschool.

A national minimum income program was approved in 2020, with benefit levels raised substantially in 2023. While health care is offered universally, challenges such as long waiting lists for care and overwhelmed emergency services have led many people to purchase private health insurance. A recent reform substantially increased basic pension benefit levels.

A well-funded gender equality plan was launched in 2022. Right-wing parties are challenging antidiscrimination laws related to gender identity and sexual orientation. Family policy offers generous maternity leave benefits. Society is quite open to migrants, but available jobs are often precarious.

Spain performs comparatively well (rank 7) in the category of environmental sustainability.

The Climate Change and Energy Transition Law sets national targets for 2030. These include a 20% reduction in greenhouse gases compared to 1990, 35% renewable energy use, and 70% renewable energy in the electrical system. The government also moved up its 2025 energy transition goals to 2023.

The country faces rising health risks from heat waves and disease due to climate change. An air quality action plan aims to reduce pollution-related mortality by monitoring high-traffic areas, especially near vulnerable locations like schools and hospitals.

A strategic biodiversity plan focusing on ecosystem conservation and restoration was passed in 2022. Land-use tensions sometimes create conflicts between the central and regional governments. The country has played a prominent role in international climate negotiations.