To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
10
---
---
9
Canada
K–12 schooling in Canada is public, free, and widely accessible. Although Canada’s education system promotes equitable access in certain aspects, barriers remain in delivering quality education to all groups and regions. Some private schools serve religious minorities and the wealthy, but these institutions constitute a small fraction of the overall system. Public funding ensures that tuition remains affordable at the primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels. Needs-based financial assistance supports low-income students in attending university or college.
“Standardized learning benchmarks set across most provinces drive quality.”
Inequities in school outcomes based on income level and other socioeconomic factors persist. Variation in education quality across provinces and rural/urban locations is a problem, as are insufficient support services and resources for marginalized student populations. Student debt levels can still deter post-secondary participation (Campbell 2021).
While foundational elements like public schooling and financial aid facilitate access, gaps in equitable funding allocation, teacher quality distribution, and the depth of assistance programs lead skills and attainment levels to diverge sharply by income, region, disability status, and background. Access alone does not guarantee the quality learning critical for social mobility.
“Standardized learning benchmarks set across most provinces drive quality.”
Inequities in school outcomes based on income level and other socioeconomic factors persist. Variation in education quality across provinces and rural/urban locations is a problem, as are insufficient support services and resources for marginalized student populations. Student debt levels can still deter post-secondary participation (Campbell 2021).
While foundational elements like public schooling and financial aid facilitate access, gaps in equitable funding allocation, teacher quality distribution, and the depth of assistance programs lead skills and attainment levels to diverge sharply by income, region, disability status, and background. Access alone does not guarantee the quality learning critical for social mobility.
Citations:
Campbell, Carol. 2021. “Educational Equity in Canada: The Case of Ontario’s Strategies and Actions to Advance Excellence and Equity for Students.” School Leadership & Management 41 (4-5): 409-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2019.1709165
Campbell, Carol. 2021. “Educational Equity in Canada: The Case of Ontario’s Strategies and Actions to Advance Excellence and Equity for Students.” School Leadership & Management 41 (4-5): 409-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2019.1709165
Denmark
The Danish educational system is largely publicly funded and freely available. This can help explain why social mobility is high in Denmark compared to other wealthy countries (Heckman and Landersø 2021). Despite this, Heckman and Landersø also find that social mobility is decreasing and social reproduction is increasing. They also observe that it is unclear exactly what the policy response should be, given that the Danish educational system is relatively well funded. Recently, the Rockwool Foundation, an independent research institute, has suggested that it is early in the educational system that children are sorted into different paths, given access to different types of jobs and hence different levels of income.
Citations:
Heckman, James and Rasmus Landersø. 2021. “Lessons for Americans from Denmark about Inequality and Social Mobility.” Labour Economics 77.
Rockwool foundation. 2023. “Social arv og offentlige udgifter til uddannelse.” Samfundøkonomen (https://rockwoolfonden.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Social-arv-og-offentlige-udgifter-til-uddannelse_Samfundsokonomen_9_2_2023.pdf?download=true)
Heckman, James and Rasmus Landersø. 2021. “Lessons for Americans from Denmark about Inequality and Social Mobility.” Labour Economics 77.
Rockwool foundation. 2023. “Social arv og offentlige udgifter til uddannelse.” Samfundøkonomen (https://rockwoolfonden.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Social-arv-og-offentlige-udgifter-til-uddannelse_Samfundsokonomen_9_2_2023.pdf?download=true)
Norway
There is a significant social gradient in school results: Children, especially girls from well-educated upper-middle-class families, achieve the highest grades and thus have privileged access to the most popular higher education programs. This reproduction of social and economic inequalities is viewed by all political parties as a breach of the objective of equal right to education for all.
The first element in the education chain is preschool, for children aged 1 to 4. Since 2003, all children have had the right to attend preschool, and 95% of all children do so. Parents pay a co-payment, determined at the national level, which is currently NOK 2000 per month per child. Low-income families and parents in peripheral geographical areas pay less. There are regulatory requirements for the ratio of children to qualified teachers.
Primary school (for children aged 6 to 16) and secondary school (for three years, typically for children aged 16 to 19) are free and wholly funded through public budgets. Completion rates for secondary school are significantly lower than 100%, approximately 75% to 80%. Considerable resources have been deployed to increase completion rates, with limited success.
State universities are free, and 40% of women and 30% of men have attained a university-level education. At all levels, private alternatives exist. These are heavily regulated, tax-financed, and not allowed to generate profits for the owners.
The first element in the education chain is preschool, for children aged 1 to 4. Since 2003, all children have had the right to attend preschool, and 95% of all children do so. Parents pay a co-payment, determined at the national level, which is currently NOK 2000 per month per child. Low-income families and parents in peripheral geographical areas pay less. There are regulatory requirements for the ratio of children to qualified teachers.
Primary school (for children aged 6 to 16) and secondary school (for three years, typically for children aged 16 to 19) are free and wholly funded through public budgets. Completion rates for secondary school are significantly lower than 100%, approximately 75% to 80%. Considerable resources have been deployed to increase completion rates, with limited success.
State universities are free, and 40% of women and 30% of men have attained a university-level education. At all levels, private alternatives exist. These are heavily regulated, tax-financed, and not allowed to generate profits for the owners.
Citations:
Statistics Norway. 2023a. “Gjennomføring i videregående opplæring.” https://www.ssb.no/utdanning/videregaende-utdanning/statistikk/gjennomforing-i-videregaende-opplaering
Statistics Norway. 2023b. “Karakterer og nasjonale prøver i grunnskolen.” https://www.ssb.no/utdanning/grunnskoler/statistikk/karakterer-ved-avsluttet-grunnskole
Utdanningsdirektoratet. 2024. “Foreldrebetaling for barnehageplass og moderasjonsordninger.” https://www.udir.no/regelverk-og-tilsyn/barnehage/foreldrebetaling/
Statistics Norway. 2023a. “Gjennomføring i videregående opplæring.” https://www.ssb.no/utdanning/videregaende-utdanning/statistikk/gjennomforing-i-videregaende-opplaering
Statistics Norway. 2023b. “Karakterer og nasjonale prøver i grunnskolen.” https://www.ssb.no/utdanning/grunnskoler/statistikk/karakterer-ved-avsluttet-grunnskole
Utdanningsdirektoratet. 2024. “Foreldrebetaling for barnehageplass og moderasjonsordninger.” https://www.udir.no/regelverk-og-tilsyn/barnehage/foreldrebetaling/
Slovenia
The Slovenian education system is based on the principle of accessibility. All levels of education – primary, secondary, and tertiary – are part of the public education system. Primary education is accessible to all inhabitants thanks to a large network of primary schools. This network is supplemented by branch schools, ensuring that all children can attend a school as close as possible to their residence.
All children have the right to a primary school education under the same conditions. Parents can choose whether their child should be educated in a public or private primary school or at home. Together with the municipality, the schools organize free transport for students who reside more than 4 km from the school. Regardless of the distance from the primary school, pupils in Year 1 and other grades are entitled to free transport if the relevant road traffic prevention authority determines that their safety is at risk on the way to school.
The school organizes childcare for students waiting for transport home. A textbook fund is set up at schools from which students can borrow textbooks and materials they need for lessons.
In June 2023, the National Assembly adopted amendments to the Law on Elementary School and the Law on School Nutrition. The amendments will ensure free lunch for all students by 2027, and a higher ceiling for lunch subsidies will come into force at the start of the 2024 school year, meaning more children will receive free lunch.
The proportion of children enrolled in kindergarten is gradually increasing. In the 2022 – 2023 school year, almost 82% of all children in the 1 – 5 age group were enrolled in Slovenian kindergartens, a 7% increase from the 2012 – 2013 school year. Parents who enroll two children in kindergarten simultaneously are exempt from paying for the younger child. Additionally, parents are exempt from paying kindergarten fees for the third and each additional child from the same family, regardless of whether they are enrolled in kindergarten at the same time as their siblings.
All children have the right to a primary school education under the same conditions. Parents can choose whether their child should be educated in a public or private primary school or at home. Together with the municipality, the schools organize free transport for students who reside more than 4 km from the school. Regardless of the distance from the primary school, pupils in Year 1 and other grades are entitled to free transport if the relevant road traffic prevention authority determines that their safety is at risk on the way to school.
The school organizes childcare for students waiting for transport home. A textbook fund is set up at schools from which students can borrow textbooks and materials they need for lessons.
In June 2023, the National Assembly adopted amendments to the Law on Elementary School and the Law on School Nutrition. The amendments will ensure free lunch for all students by 2027, and a higher ceiling for lunch subsidies will come into force at the start of the 2024 school year, meaning more children will receive free lunch.
The proportion of children enrolled in kindergarten is gradually increasing. In the 2022 – 2023 school year, almost 82% of all children in the 1 – 5 age group were enrolled in Slovenian kindergartens, a 7% increase from the 2012 – 2013 school year. Parents who enroll two children in kindergarten simultaneously are exempt from paying for the younger child. Additionally, parents are exempt from paying kindergarten fees for the third and each additional child from the same family, regardless of whether they are enrolled in kindergarten at the same time as their siblings.
Citations:
Republika Slovenija. 2024. “Znižano plačevanje vrtca.” https://www.gov.si/teme/znizano-placilo-vrtca/
Republika Slovenija. 2024. “O šoli.” https://www.gov.si/teme/o-osnovni-soli/
A. S. 2023. “Brezplačna kosila za vse osnovnošolce šele leta 2027, z letom 2024 več subvencij.” MMC RTV SLO, June 7. https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/brezplacna-kosila-za-vse-osnovnosolce-sele-leta-2027-z-letom-2024-vec-subvencij/670990
Republika Slovenija. 2024. “Znižano plačevanje vrtca.” https://www.gov.si/teme/znizano-placilo-vrtca/
Republika Slovenija. 2024. “O šoli.” https://www.gov.si/teme/o-osnovni-soli/
A. S. 2023. “Brezplačna kosila za vse osnovnošolce šele leta 2027, z letom 2024 več subvencij.” MMC RTV SLO, June 7. https://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/brezplacna-kosila-za-vse-osnovnosolce-sele-leta-2027-z-letom-2024-vec-subvencij/670990
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
8
Finland
By law, all people in Finland must have equal access to high-quality education and training. Basic education is free, and municipalities are responsible for providing educational services to all local children.
The Education Policy Report by the Ministry of Education and Culture (2021) sets the course for inclusive and high-quality education in Finland by 2040, addressing the challenges posed by growing skill requirements and shrinking age cohorts. It delineates the envisioned state of education and research in the 2040s, along with the requisite changes in resources, structures and guidance.
The key objectives of education policy are to elevate the quality of education and expand competences across the population, reduce learning outcome disparities, enhance educational equality, and position Finland as an internationally appealing hub for study, research and investment.
The government’s goal, as outlined in the 2021 Education Policy Report, is for Finland to have a cultural and educational foundation by 2040 rooted in effective and high-quality education, research and culture. This foundation is intended to form the bedrock of international competitiveness and citizen well-being. The report envisions improved educational equity and accessibility by 2040, positioning Finland’s education and competence levels among the world’s best. Education and research play pivotal roles in achieving broader societal sustainable development goals.
Key objectives and measures up to 2040 include addressing societal challenges such as demographic changes, regional disparities and technological advancements. The program emphasizes continuous learning and collaboration between work and competences with the aim of protecting individuals and providing a competitive edge for companies. Additionally, the report aims to eventually make early childhood education and care free of charge for a minimum of four hours per day.
Traditionally, the education system in Finland has facilitated equitable access to high-quality education and training. However, Finland has not been particularly successful in providing access to high-quality education for all migrant groups. This concern also extends to equal access to early childhood development, care and preprimary education.
The Education Policy Report by the Ministry of Education and Culture (2021) sets the course for inclusive and high-quality education in Finland by 2040, addressing the challenges posed by growing skill requirements and shrinking age cohorts. It delineates the envisioned state of education and research in the 2040s, along with the requisite changes in resources, structures and guidance.
The key objectives of education policy are to elevate the quality of education and expand competences across the population, reduce learning outcome disparities, enhance educational equality, and position Finland as an internationally appealing hub for study, research and investment.
The government’s goal, as outlined in the 2021 Education Policy Report, is for Finland to have a cultural and educational foundation by 2040 rooted in effective and high-quality education, research and culture. This foundation is intended to form the bedrock of international competitiveness and citizen well-being. The report envisions improved educational equity and accessibility by 2040, positioning Finland’s education and competence levels among the world’s best. Education and research play pivotal roles in achieving broader societal sustainable development goals.
Key objectives and measures up to 2040 include addressing societal challenges such as demographic changes, regional disparities and technological advancements. The program emphasizes continuous learning and collaboration between work and competences with the aim of protecting individuals and providing a competitive edge for companies. Additionally, the report aims to eventually make early childhood education and care free of charge for a minimum of four hours per day.
Traditionally, the education system in Finland has facilitated equitable access to high-quality education and training. However, Finland has not been particularly successful in providing access to high-quality education for all migrant groups. This concern also extends to equal access to early childhood development, care and preprimary education.
Citations:
Ministry of Education and Culture. 2021. “Education Policy Report: Equitable Education of High Quality Essential for Growing Skills Requirements and Shrinking Age Cohorts in Finland.” https://okm.fi/en/-/education-policy-report-equitable-education-of-high-quality-essential-for-growing-skills-requirements-and-shrinking-age-cohorts-in-finland
Ministry of Education and Culture. 2021. “Education Policy Report: Equitable Education of High Quality Essential for Growing Skills Requirements and Shrinking Age Cohorts in Finland.” https://okm.fi/en/-/education-policy-report-equitable-education-of-high-quality-essential-for-growing-skills-requirements-and-shrinking-age-cohorts-in-finland
Sweden
Sweden provides equitable access to education for all (SFS 2010, 800), which contributes to the country’s strong performance in gender equity in educational attainment. Municipalities are responsible for pre-schools, elementary schools, special elementary schools, high schools, special high schools, municipal adult education, special education for adults, education in Swedish for immigrants, and after-school activities, unless otherwise stated. Pre-schools and schools are considered critical societal operations, and the law requires that they be maintained during times of crisis and heightened alert to the extent that prevailing circumstances allow (Skolverket, 2023a). The Swedish Education Act (SFS 2010, 800) regulates the recruitment of teachers, ensuring highly skilled educators. However, there is a persistent lack of qualified personnel in rural areas, especially in the north.
Sweden has a strong tradition of preschool education, and the government spent €8,294 million on early childhood education in 2020, the third highest expenditure in Europe after Germany and France (Eurostat, 2023a). Sweden was ranked fourth among OECD countries in terms of early childhood education for children aged between three and the starting age of compulsory primary education. It is also one of four countries where over 90% of children between ages 2 – 3 are enrolled in early childhood education (OECD, 2023).
Equal access to education is regulated by the Education Act (SFS 2010, 800). Gender-equal education is a key component of Sweden’s equality targets. Currently, there are notable gender differences in study results, mental health, choice of education, and values. In 2021 – 2022, girls generally had grades that were 10% higher than boys’ grades. Additionally, 78% of girls reported experiencing quite a lot or a high level of stress from schoolwork, while the corresponding figure for boys was 51% (Jämställdhetsmyndigheten, 2023).
Schools are obliged to prevent and remedy discrimination as regulated by the Discrimination Act (SFS 2008:567), which stipulates seven grounds for discrimination: sex, transgender identity or expression, ethnicity, religion or other belief, disability, sexual orientation, and age. In higher education, there are more female students than male students, but slightly more men than women are Ph.D. students. Higher positions at universities are less equal; for example, only three out of ten professors are women (Jämställdhetsmyndigheten, 2023).
Sweden ranks 15th in the PISA results concerning socioeconomic background (OECD, 2023). Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds perform worse in math, reading comprehension, and natural science. Math scores are not statistically significantly different from the OECD average, but in reading comprehension and natural science, the differences are larger in Sweden than the OECD average (Skolverket, 2023b). Students with foreign backgrounds generally achieve lower scores than those born in Sweden. However, the differences diminish after adjusting for socioeconomic background (Skolverket, 2023b).
Elementary and high school levels of education for adults are referred to as municipal adult education and are regulated by the Education Act (SFS 2010, 800). The purpose of adult education is to strengthen and stimulate lifelong learning, providing opportunities for knowledge and skills that enhance an individual’s role in the labor market and society. Priority is given to those with the least education, with the educational approach based on the individual’s needs and circumstances.
Sweden’s policies are reflected in the increase in the population with post-secondary educational attainment over the last three decades. In the early 1990s, just over 10% of the population had some form of post-secondary education, while in 2022 (latest available data), this figure had increased to almost 50%. More women than men have attained at least a three-year tertiary education, whereas slightly more men than women have attained a doctorate degree. Sweden performs well in gender equity but less well in spatial terms. Educational attainment is higher in urban areas than in rural areas, likely reflecting the gap in employment opportunities. Finally, people born outside Sweden have a slightly lower level of education, though there are disparities within this group depending on country of birth, immigrant group, age, and reasons for migration (SCB, 2022).
Sweden has a strong tradition of preschool education, and the government spent €8,294 million on early childhood education in 2020, the third highest expenditure in Europe after Germany and France (Eurostat, 2023a). Sweden was ranked fourth among OECD countries in terms of early childhood education for children aged between three and the starting age of compulsory primary education. It is also one of four countries where over 90% of children between ages 2 – 3 are enrolled in early childhood education (OECD, 2023).
Equal access to education is regulated by the Education Act (SFS 2010, 800). Gender-equal education is a key component of Sweden’s equality targets. Currently, there are notable gender differences in study results, mental health, choice of education, and values. In 2021 – 2022, girls generally had grades that were 10% higher than boys’ grades. Additionally, 78% of girls reported experiencing quite a lot or a high level of stress from schoolwork, while the corresponding figure for boys was 51% (Jämställdhetsmyndigheten, 2023).
Schools are obliged to prevent and remedy discrimination as regulated by the Discrimination Act (SFS 2008:567), which stipulates seven grounds for discrimination: sex, transgender identity or expression, ethnicity, religion or other belief, disability, sexual orientation, and age. In higher education, there are more female students than male students, but slightly more men than women are Ph.D. students. Higher positions at universities are less equal; for example, only three out of ten professors are women (Jämställdhetsmyndigheten, 2023).
Sweden ranks 15th in the PISA results concerning socioeconomic background (OECD, 2023). Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds perform worse in math, reading comprehension, and natural science. Math scores are not statistically significantly different from the OECD average, but in reading comprehension and natural science, the differences are larger in Sweden than the OECD average (Skolverket, 2023b). Students with foreign backgrounds generally achieve lower scores than those born in Sweden. However, the differences diminish after adjusting for socioeconomic background (Skolverket, 2023b).
Elementary and high school levels of education for adults are referred to as municipal adult education and are regulated by the Education Act (SFS 2010, 800). The purpose of adult education is to strengthen and stimulate lifelong learning, providing opportunities for knowledge and skills that enhance an individual’s role in the labor market and society. Priority is given to those with the least education, with the educational approach based on the individual’s needs and circumstances.
Sweden’s policies are reflected in the increase in the population with post-secondary educational attainment over the last three decades. In the early 1990s, just over 10% of the population had some form of post-secondary education, while in 2022 (latest available data), this figure had increased to almost 50%. More women than men have attained at least a three-year tertiary education, whereas slightly more men than women have attained a doctorate degree. Sweden performs well in gender equity but less well in spatial terms. Educational attainment is higher in urban areas than in rural areas, likely reflecting the gap in employment opportunities. Finally, people born outside Sweden have a slightly lower level of education, though there are disparities within this group depending on country of birth, immigrant group, age, and reasons for migration (SCB, 2022).
Citations:
Eurostat. 2023a. “Public Educational Expenditure by Education Level, Programme Orientation, Type of Source and Expenditure Category.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/EDUC_UOE_FINE02__custom_1182194/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023b. “Ratio of pupils and students to teachers and academic staff by education level and programme orientation.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/EDUC_UOE_PERP04/default/table?lang=en
Jämställdhetsmyndigheten. 2023. “Delmål 3: Jämställd utbildning.” https://jamstalldhetsmyndigheten.se/jamstalldhet-i-sverige/delmal-3-jamstalld-utbildning/
OECD. 2023. Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.
SFS. 2008. Diskrimineringslag. https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/diskrimineringslag-2008567_sfs-2008-567/
SCB, Statistiska centralbyrån. 2022. Befolkningens utbildning 2022 Temarapport 2023:8.
SFS. 2010. “Skollag.” https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/skollag-2010800_sfs-2010-800
Skolverket. 2023. Skolväsendets ansvar vid kris och höjd beredskap. Skolverket.
Skolverket. 2023. Pisa 2022: 15-åringars kunskaper i matematik, läsförståelse och naturvetenskap. Stockholm: Skolverket.
https://www.skolverket.se/regler-och-ansvar/ansvar-i-skolfragor/skolvasendets-ansvar-vid-kris-och-hojd-beredskap
Eurostat. 2023a. “Public Educational Expenditure by Education Level, Programme Orientation, Type of Source and Expenditure Category.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/EDUC_UOE_FINE02__custom_1182194/default/table?lang=en
Eurostat. 2023b. “Ratio of pupils and students to teachers and academic staff by education level and programme orientation.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/EDUC_UOE_PERP04/default/table?lang=en
Jämställdhetsmyndigheten. 2023. “Delmål 3: Jämställd utbildning.” https://jamstalldhetsmyndigheten.se/jamstalldhet-i-sverige/delmal-3-jamstalld-utbildning/
OECD. 2023. Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.
SFS. 2008. Diskrimineringslag. https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/diskrimineringslag-2008567_sfs-2008-567/
SCB, Statistiska centralbyrån. 2022. Befolkningens utbildning 2022 Temarapport 2023:8.
SFS. 2010. “Skollag.” https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-och-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/skollag-2010800_sfs-2010-800
Skolverket. 2023. Skolväsendets ansvar vid kris och höjd beredskap. Skolverket.
Skolverket. 2023. Pisa 2022: 15-åringars kunskaper i matematik, läsförståelse och naturvetenskap. Stockholm: Skolverket.
https://www.skolverket.se/regler-och-ansvar/ansvar-i-skolfragor/skolvasendets-ansvar-vid-kris-och-hojd-beredskap
7
Belgium
Primary and secondary education are free in Belgium. Access to secondary schools is increasingly randomized to prevent privileged access. Tertiary education is offered at a low fee (less than €1,000 per year), but students receive allowances only under dire financial conditions. According to these “accounting” indicators, Belgium’s education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
In terms of outcomes, the situation is less positive. The OECD’s PISA studies reveal high inequalities in most topics. The spread between high social status and less advantaged families is important: the European Commission’s Semester evaluation (p4) reads “[Belgium] performs very well and is making further progress on all SDGs on productivity [but it] is lagging behind on ensuring that people with a migrant background participate in the labor market and on tackling inequalities in educational outcomes linked to socioeconomic background.” Several hurdles face less favored families: first, the actual quality of education varies substantially across schools, and the knowledge about these is tacit. In other words, one must know how to pick a good school, which requires a good educational background. Second, education is not designed for non-native speakers: the study of languages, in particular, require a lot of parental support, and there is little extra-curricular support. Third, there is little financial support, for measures such as free meals for the poor at school. Fourth, many students end up failing (i.e., repeating) one or more years of schooling, and receive little specific support targeting their improved performance. Professional/technical education is far below the standards achieved in German-speaking countries.
The results of these inequalities in primary and secondary education is most visible at the university level, where all students with a higher secondary education diploma are granted access. Selection takes place in the first year, where fail rates are considerably higher than 50% in most disciplines. Moreover, classroom size can be well above 1,000, implying that external support, for example from private instructors, may be valuable. even if generally not affordable.
The European Commission (2023) identifies these inequalities as an important hurdle to clear in tackling labor shortages.
In terms of outcomes, the situation is less positive. The OECD’s PISA studies reveal high inequalities in most topics. The spread between high social status and less advantaged families is important: the European Commission’s Semester evaluation (p4) reads “[Belgium] performs very well and is making further progress on all SDGs on productivity [but it] is lagging behind on ensuring that people with a migrant background participate in the labor market and on tackling inequalities in educational outcomes linked to socioeconomic background.” Several hurdles face less favored families: first, the actual quality of education varies substantially across schools, and the knowledge about these is tacit. In other words, one must know how to pick a good school, which requires a good educational background. Second, education is not designed for non-native speakers: the study of languages, in particular, require a lot of parental support, and there is little extra-curricular support. Third, there is little financial support, for measures such as free meals for the poor at school. Fourth, many students end up failing (i.e., repeating) one or more years of schooling, and receive little specific support targeting their improved performance. Professional/technical education is far below the standards achieved in German-speaking countries.
The results of these inequalities in primary and secondary education is most visible at the university level, where all students with a higher secondary education diploma are granted access. Selection takes place in the first year, where fail rates are considerably higher than 50% in most disciplines. Moreover, classroom size can be well above 1,000, implying that external support, for example from private instructors, may be valuable. even if generally not affordable.
The European Commission (2023) identifies these inequalities as an important hurdle to clear in tackling labor shortages.
Citations:
European Commission. 2023. “Commission Staff Working Document. 2023 Country Report – Belgium.” COM(2023)601 Final; SWD(2023)600 final.
European Commission. 2023. “Commission Staff Working Document. 2023 Country Report – Belgium.” COM(2023)601 Final; SWD(2023)600 final.
Czechia
The Czech state educational system provides compulsory school education for all for effectively 10 years. However, three notable problems remain concerning equity and access.
First, there is poor provision for the earliest years. Preschool education is among the least accessible in the EU. The share of children between the ages of three and the starting age of compulsory primary education who participated in early childhood education and care was 79.8% in 2022, putting Czechia in 26th place in the OECD – with a much lower figure for those under three years of age.
Second, there is limited access to tertiary education. Although there are no fees for standard public higher education, additional support is limited. Grants are available at the discretion of the institution for those living away from the family home and for those from very low-income backgrounds. The total sum spent on the latter in 2022 was CZK 14.1 million, suggesting that there were few student recipients. Private universities, which account for about 10% of the total student number, receive government support only for the above forms of student aid.
Students can and do support themselves through working, frequently in flexible forms outside the standard employment contract, such as in catering, retail, and seasonal agricultural work. It remains unclear how far financial difficulties limit access to higher education.
The third problem for equitable access is discrimination against the disadvantaged Roma population, who are
Roma children are disproportionately educated in special schools. They represent about one-third of the pupils in these institutions, with 10.3% of Roma children enrolled, compared to 2% of children overall. In 2007, the European Court of Human Rights delivered a landmark judgment, upholding an individual’s complaint that he had been assigned to a special school based on ethnicity rather than ability. In February 2023, the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe concluded that there had been only minimal change in outcomes, noting that the testing system remained biased against Roma.
First, there is poor provision for the earliest years. Preschool education is among the least accessible in the EU. The share of children between the ages of three and the starting age of compulsory primary education who participated in early childhood education and care was 79.8% in 2022, putting Czechia in 26th place in the OECD – with a much lower figure for those under three years of age.
Second, there is limited access to tertiary education. Although there are no fees for standard public higher education, additional support is limited. Grants are available at the discretion of the institution for those living away from the family home and for those from very low-income backgrounds. The total sum spent on the latter in 2022 was CZK 14.1 million, suggesting that there were few student recipients. Private universities, which account for about 10% of the total student number, receive government support only for the above forms of student aid.
Students can and do support themselves through working, frequently in flexible forms outside the standard employment contract, such as in catering, retail, and seasonal agricultural work. It remains unclear how far financial difficulties limit access to higher education.
The third problem for equitable access is discrimination against the disadvantaged Roma population, who are
Roma children are disproportionately educated in special schools. They represent about one-third of the pupils in these institutions, with 10.3% of Roma children enrolled, compared to 2% of children overall. In 2007, the European Court of Human Rights delivered a landmark judgment, upholding an individual’s complaint that he had been assigned to a special school based on ethnicity rather than ability. In February 2023, the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe concluded that there had been only minimal change in outcomes, noting that the testing system remained biased against Roma.
Citations:
https://www.msmt.cz/vzdelavani/skolstvi-v-cr/statistika-skolstvi/vyrocni-zpravy-o-stavu-a-rozvoji-vzdelavani-v-ceske-1
https://www.errc.org/news/15-years-after-DH-czechs-carry-on-segregating-roma-face-discrimination-in-every-aspect-of-their-lives
https://www.msmt.cz/vzdelavani/skolstvi-v-cr/statistika-skolstvi/vyrocni-zpravy-o-stavu-a-rozvoji-vzdelavani-v-ceske-1
https://www.errc.org/news/15-years-after-DH-czechs-carry-on-segregating-roma-face-discrimination-in-every-aspect-of-their-lives
Estonia
The public dominance of educational provision at all levels (only early childhood education and care has tuition fees, limited to 20% of the minimum) results in increasing demand for public expenditures in education. This demand is intensified by the expansion of tertiary education, the principle of inclusive schooling, and the Soviet-inherited basic school network. The growing inadequacy of the latter has been the target of reform for decades (NAO 2022), and a funding formula to compensate for regional disparities has kept rural and urban divides in educational performance relatively low.
Still, additional demands to integrate Ukrainian refugees’ children (there were 8,500 Ukrainian students in the Estonian school system in early 2023), public and “free” higher education, and security crises have placed a strong focus on the sustainability and quality of existing institutions, especially schools in remote areas. This has raised concerns over the shortage of teachers and their working conditions, but political promises to address these issues have proved hard to keep due to the security and energy crises, which have increased budgetary tensions.
The transition to Estonian-language education starting in 2024 – a long-needed reform to cope with the ethnic educational gap in Estonia (OECD 2023) – has created additional pressure in terms of requirements for teachers and the need for new investment.
Still, additional demands to integrate Ukrainian refugees’ children (there were 8,500 Ukrainian students in the Estonian school system in early 2023), public and “free” higher education, and security crises have placed a strong focus on the sustainability and quality of existing institutions, especially schools in remote areas. This has raised concerns over the shortage of teachers and their working conditions, but political promises to address these issues have proved hard to keep due to the security and energy crises, which have increased budgetary tensions.
The transition to Estonian-language education starting in 2024 – a long-needed reform to cope with the ethnic educational gap in Estonia (OECD 2023) – has created additional pressure in terms of requirements for teachers and the need for new investment.
Citations:
National Audit Office. 2022. “The Reorganisation of the Upper Secondary School Network Needs Clear Criteria.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/Kontaktid/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tajad/T%C3%B6%C3%B6taja/tabid/215/Audit/2549/WorkerId/12/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
National Audit Office. 2022. “The Reorganisation of the Upper Secondary School Network Needs Clear Criteria.” https://www.riigikontroll.ee/Kontaktid/T%C3%B6%C3%B6tajad/T%C3%B6%C3%B6taja/tabid/215/Audit/2549/WorkerId/12/language/et-EE/Default.aspx
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume II): Learning During – and From – Disruption. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/a97db61c-en
Ireland
The Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) Scheme provides early childhood care and education for children of preschool age, including a specific program for access and inclusion. Children can start ECCE at 2 years and 8 months of age and continue until they transfer to primary school, provided they are not older than 5 years and 6 months at the end of the preschool year. This scheme ensures access to a part-time early childhood development program that prepares children for primary school, with very high take-up rates. However, policy concerning access to earlier forms of childcare is limited, and overall investment in pre-primary education remains low relative to equivalent jurisdictions in Europe.
The education system generally seeks to ensure access to all levels of education for all, regardless of socioeconomic background. However, class issues (increasingly combined with ethnicity) affect the quality and equality of children’s educational experiences. There is an uneven distribution of need that is not always compensated by targeted policies such as DEIS (Delivering Equality of Education in Schools). Progress up the educational scale is correlated with social class. The secondary education system has a two-tier structure, with about 10% of pupils attending fee-paying schools. These schools, which charge up to €6,000 per pupil per year, are socially exclusive, achieve higher academic results, and have higher progression rates to tertiary education than non-fee-paying schools. This perpetuates inequality and lacks transparent and equitable entry criteria. National monitoring of Graduate Outcomes and Socioeconomic Status has highlighted inequality in third-level attainment, with almost one in five graduates from 2020 coming from affluent backgrounds and fewer than one in 10 from disadvantaged backgrounds (HEA 2020a).
The National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access, Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028 (HEA 2020b) focuses on students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged, students with disabilities, and students from the Irish Traveller community. It also targets specific cohorts of underrepresented or marginalized students, including mature students from disadvantaged areas, students with intellectual disabilities, members of the Roma community, those with experience in the care system, homelessness, the criminal justice system, survivors of domestic violence, students who are carers, “second-chance” mature students, migrants and refugees. Irish students at tertiary institutions are not charged fees for most undergraduate courses but do pay a “student contribution.” Following the 2022 budget, a significant increase in higher education spending was announced, and the €3,000 contribution will be reduced to €2,000 over several budgets. However, significant accommodation and transport costs remain barriers for third-level students.
The education system does provide second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low levels of skills upon leaving education. However, means testing of second-chance adult education supports, an over-focus on labor market or vocational-oriented education, the absence of comprehensive adult education guidance, and a lack of other supports, including care and transport, can limit meaningful access.
The education system generally seeks to ensure access to all levels of education for all, regardless of socioeconomic background. However, class issues (increasingly combined with ethnicity) affect the quality and equality of children’s educational experiences. There is an uneven distribution of need that is not always compensated by targeted policies such as DEIS (Delivering Equality of Education in Schools). Progress up the educational scale is correlated with social class. The secondary education system has a two-tier structure, with about 10% of pupils attending fee-paying schools. These schools, which charge up to €6,000 per pupil per year, are socially exclusive, achieve higher academic results, and have higher progression rates to tertiary education than non-fee-paying schools. This perpetuates inequality and lacks transparent and equitable entry criteria. National monitoring of Graduate Outcomes and Socioeconomic Status has highlighted inequality in third-level attainment, with almost one in five graduates from 2020 coming from affluent backgrounds and fewer than one in 10 from disadvantaged backgrounds (HEA 2020a).
The National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access, Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028 (HEA 2020b) focuses on students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged, students with disabilities, and students from the Irish Traveller community. It also targets specific cohorts of underrepresented or marginalized students, including mature students from disadvantaged areas, students with intellectual disabilities, members of the Roma community, those with experience in the care system, homelessness, the criminal justice system, survivors of domestic violence, students who are carers, “second-chance” mature students, migrants and refugees. Irish students at tertiary institutions are not charged fees for most undergraduate courses but do pay a “student contribution.” Following the 2022 budget, a significant increase in higher education spending was announced, and the €3,000 contribution will be reduced to €2,000 over several budgets. However, significant accommodation and transport costs remain barriers for third-level students.
The education system does provide second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low levels of skills upon leaving education. However, means testing of second-chance adult education supports, an over-focus on labor market or vocational-oriented education, the absence of comprehensive adult education guidance, and a lack of other supports, including care and transport, can limit meaningful access.
Citations:
DEIS. 2020. “DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity In Schools.” https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/4018ea-deis-delivering-equality-of-opportunity-in-schools/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020a. “Graduate Outcomes and Socio-Economic Status Report.” https://hea.ie/statistics/graduate-outcomes-data-and-reports/graduate-outcomes-for-access-groups/2-foreword-gosdis-2020/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020b. “National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028.” Government of Ireland. https://hea.ie/assets/uploads/2022/12/National-Access-Plan-2022-2028-FINAL.pdfquality+education+and+training+ireland
O’Sullivan, K., Byrne, D., Robson, J., and Winters, N. 2019. “Who Goes to College via Access Routes? A Comparative Study of Widening Participation Admission in Selective Universities in Ireland and England.” Social Inclusion 7 (1): 38-51.
Teachers Union Ireland. 2023. “News Bulletin.” 45 (6): 9. Dublin: TUI.
DEIS. 2020. “DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity In Schools.” https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/4018ea-deis-delivering-equality-of-opportunity-in-schools/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020a. “Graduate Outcomes and Socio-Economic Status Report.” https://hea.ie/statistics/graduate-outcomes-data-and-reports/graduate-outcomes-for-access-groups/2-foreword-gosdis-2020/
HEA (Higher Education Authority). 2020b. “National Access Plan: A Strategic Action Plan for Equity of Access Participation and Success in Higher Education 2022-2028.” Government of Ireland. https://hea.ie/assets/uploads/2022/12/National-Access-Plan-2022-2028-FINAL.pdfquality+education+and+training+ireland
O’Sullivan, K., Byrne, D., Robson, J., and Winters, N. 2019. “Who Goes to College via Access Routes? A Comparative Study of Widening Participation Admission in Selective Universities in Ireland and England.” Social Inclusion 7 (1): 38-51.
Teachers Union Ireland. 2023. “News Bulletin.” 45 (6): 9. Dublin: TUI.
Japan
The Japanese education system ensures reasonably equitable access to education for all children. Article 4 of the Basic Act on Education, revised in 2006, prohibits “discrimination in education on account of race, creed, sex, social status, economic position, or family origin.” As many as 53% of children at age two are enrolled in early childhood education and care, the highest reported share among OECD countries. Elementary school and junior high school are mandatory in Japan. As many as 56% of Japanese between 25 and 64 years old have received tertiary education, and this percentage is even higher among 25 to 34 year olds (69% among women and 62% among men). The gender gap in upper secondary school completion is negligible. In recent years, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology started promoting night classes at public junior high schools for those who had not completed their education due to war, poverty, bullying or illness.
The central and local governments subsidize education to facilitate access to all levels of education regardless of socioeconomic background. Private early childhood education centers are publicly subsidized and preschool education for all children between three and five years old is free. Education is compulsory up to junior high school, although not for foreign residents, and is free in public schools. In addition, pupils are provided with free textbooks. Moreover, students from low-earning families are eligible for tuition reductions, exemptions and scholarships for non-compulsory education. In December 2023, Prime Minister Kishida announced a plan to waive university tuition for households with three or more children, regardless of income, starting from FY2025.
Some controversies are related to the fact that cities such as Osaka and Tokyo started planning to remove tuition fees for all students, which would lead to unequal opportunities for students depending on their residential address. In addition, due to family responsibilities, women tend to participate less in lifelong learning. There are also significant gender differences in the distribution of university students across fields of study. In 2019, there were only 16% of women in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction – the lowest share among OECD countries. Elite universities, whether public or private, usually only have 20% to 30% female students.
The central and local governments subsidize education to facilitate access to all levels of education regardless of socioeconomic background. Private early childhood education centers are publicly subsidized and preschool education for all children between three and five years old is free. Education is compulsory up to junior high school, although not for foreign residents, and is free in public schools. In addition, pupils are provided with free textbooks. Moreover, students from low-earning families are eligible for tuition reductions, exemptions and scholarships for non-compulsory education. In December 2023, Prime Minister Kishida announced a plan to waive university tuition for households with three or more children, regardless of income, starting from FY2025.
Some controversies are related to the fact that cities such as Osaka and Tokyo started planning to remove tuition fees for all students, which would lead to unequal opportunities for students depending on their residential address. In addition, due to family responsibilities, women tend to participate less in lifelong learning. There are also significant gender differences in the distribution of university students across fields of study. In 2019, there were only 16% of women in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction – the lowest share among OECD countries. Elite universities, whether public or private, usually only have 20% to 30% female students.
Citations:
Baseel, Casey. 2023. “Tokyo makes high school free for all families, even the rich ones.” Japan Today December 7.
“Families with three or more children to be given free university tuition.” The Asahi Shimbun, December 7. https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/15077602
“Night classes providing a second chance at missed junior high school education.” The Mainichi, November 12. https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20171112/p2a/00m/0na/008000c
OECD. 2023. “Education at a Glance 2023.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/e13bef63-en.pdf?expires=1702223598&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=43C5B09F634C976B33326CF2106120CE
OECD. 2021. “Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators: Japan.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/1426642c-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/1426642c-en
Toda, Sayuri. 2023. “Osaka Pref. to make all high school tuition free, eliminate income limit in Japan first.” https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20230826/p2a/00m/0na/016000c
Baseel, Casey. 2023. “Tokyo makes high school free for all families, even the rich ones.” Japan Today December 7.
“Families with three or more children to be given free university tuition.” The Asahi Shimbun, December 7. https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/15077602
“Night classes providing a second chance at missed junior high school education.” The Mainichi, November 12. https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20171112/p2a/00m/0na/008000c
OECD. 2023. “Education at a Glance 2023.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/e13bef63-en.pdf?expires=1702223598&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=43C5B09F634C976B33326CF2106120CE
OECD. 2021. “Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators: Japan.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/1426642c-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/1426642c-en
Toda, Sayuri. 2023. “Osaka Pref. to make all high school tuition free, eliminate income limit in Japan first.” https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20230826/p2a/00m/0na/016000c
Latvia
In 2024 the Ministry of Education continued developing a school network plan with a focus on setting criteria for accessibility. For students in grades 1-6, the principle of “Education Closer to Home” is proposed, where the travel time to and from school should not exceed 40 minutes using municipal transportation. In contrast, for students in grades 7-12, the distance between schools should not exceed 25 kilometers.
Additionally, the ministry’s comprehensive solutions include introducing specific criteria to determine the establishment of good schools and optimal class groups, considering student density in municipalities. The requirements are recommended for grades 1-6, but combined classes are not allowed at this education level.
Conversely, for grades 7 – 12, the criteria are mandatory for all municipalities. The Ministry of Education’s plan stipulates that in capital cities and administrative centers, there should be a minimum of 120 students in all four class groups. In municipalities outside administrative centers, there should be a minimum of 30 students in grades 1 – 3 and 4 – 6, and 60 in grades 7 – 9 and 10 – 12. In border and sparsely populated municipalities, there should be a minimum of 30 students in three class groups up to the 9th grade and 60 students in high school. It is worth noting that representatives from the education sector have expressed a desire for significantly lower criteria.
Additionally, the ministry’s comprehensive solutions include introducing specific criteria to determine the establishment of good schools and optimal class groups, considering student density in municipalities. The requirements are recommended for grades 1-6, but combined classes are not allowed at this education level.
Conversely, for grades 7 – 12, the criteria are mandatory for all municipalities. The Ministry of Education’s plan stipulates that in capital cities and administrative centers, there should be a minimum of 120 students in all four class groups. In municipalities outside administrative centers, there should be a minimum of 30 students in grades 1 – 3 and 4 – 6, and 60 in grades 7 – 9 and 10 – 12. In border and sparsely populated municipalities, there should be a minimum of 30 students in three class groups up to the 9th grade and 60 students in high school. It is worth noting that representatives from the education sector have expressed a desire for significantly lower criteria.
Citations:
Ministru kabinets. 2023. “Kompleksi risinājumi augstvērtīgai izglītības nodrošināšanai vispārējā pamata un vidējā izglītībā.” https://tapportals.mk.gov.lv/legal_acts/b99cad00-260e-4139-8757-376634d98862
Ministru kabinets. 2023. “Kompleksi risinājumi augstvērtīgai izglītības nodrošināšanai vispārējā pamata un vidējā izglītībā.” https://tapportals.mk.gov.lv/legal_acts/b99cad00-260e-4139-8757-376634d98862
Lithuania
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education. The country exhibits an urban-rural divide, and there are notable disparities in educational achievements between girls and boys. According to Eurydice, an analysis of differences in the achievements of 15-year-olds showed that pupils from families from low socioeconomic strata studying in the same schools scored 46 points below the national average, equivalent to a 1.5-year gap. When compared with children from families at higher socioeconomic strata, the gap widened to 86 points, or 2.8 years.
The coalition government formed in late 2020 committed to both improving the quality of education and enhancing equity of access to it. Regarding access, the government undertook several projects, including dedicating additional attention and resources to families requiring social assistance for early childhood education services. It also emphasized inclusive educational initiatives for children with special needs, and focused on enhancing the quality of teaching and studies in schools for national minorities.
In the area of tertiary education, the government outlined plans to increase support for students from socially disadvantaged families and students with special needs. Additional investments in IT skills and technological upgrades for the education process could also contribute to more equitable access, particularly in rural areas.
In 2022, the government adopted amendments to the Law on Education aimed at facilitating individual help for pupils who experience difficulties during the study process and who fail intermediary tests, which have also been reformed to signal earlier about such needs (The Government Annual Report for 2022, 2023). Additionally, throughout the year, financial and expert-consultation support was provided to improve equitable access to education, with 54 partnership agreements signed between municipalities, the National Education Agency and 90 schools.
Also, information and financial support were provided to refugees from Ukraine regarding educational opportunities and their practical use. According to the findings of Eurydice (2023), quoted in the government report on its 2022 activities, Lithuania is among the countries where more than half of all pupils and students who arrived from Ukraine have been integrated into local schools. In 2022, the Lithuanian government allocated €28 million to integrate refugees from Ukraine into the education system.
The coalition government formed in late 2020 committed to both improving the quality of education and enhancing equity of access to it. Regarding access, the government undertook several projects, including dedicating additional attention and resources to families requiring social assistance for early childhood education services. It also emphasized inclusive educational initiatives for children with special needs, and focused on enhancing the quality of teaching and studies in schools for national minorities.
In the area of tertiary education, the government outlined plans to increase support for students from socially disadvantaged families and students with special needs. Additional investments in IT skills and technological upgrades for the education process could also contribute to more equitable access, particularly in rural areas.
In 2022, the government adopted amendments to the Law on Education aimed at facilitating individual help for pupils who experience difficulties during the study process and who fail intermediary tests, which have also been reformed to signal earlier about such needs (The Government Annual Report for 2022, 2023). Additionally, throughout the year, financial and expert-consultation support was provided to improve equitable access to education, with 54 partnership agreements signed between municipalities, the National Education Agency and 90 schools.
Also, information and financial support were provided to refugees from Ukraine regarding educational opportunities and their practical use. According to the findings of Eurydice (2023), quoted in the government report on its 2022 activities, Lithuania is among the countries where more than half of all pupils and students who arrived from Ukraine have been integrated into local schools. In 2022, the Lithuanian government allocated €28 million to integrate refugees from Ukraine into the education system.
Citations:
Eurydice, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/lithuania/overview
The Seimas. 2020. The Resolution on The Program of the Eighteenth Government of Lithuania (in Lithuanian), No. XIV-72.
The Government Annual Report for 2022, 17 May 2023 (in Lithuanian), https://epilietis.lrv.lt/lt/naujienos/seimui-teikiama-vyriausybes-2022-metu-veiklos-ataskaita.
Eurydice, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/lithuania/overview
The Seimas. 2020. The Resolution on The Program of the Eighteenth Government of Lithuania (in Lithuanian), No. XIV-72.
The Government Annual Report for 2022, 17 May 2023 (in Lithuanian), https://epilietis.lrv.lt/lt/naujienos/seimui-teikiama-vyriausybes-2022-metu-veiklos-ataskaita.
Poland
Poland has made efforts to create a more inclusive and equitable educational system, ensuring that students have equal access to educational opportunities regardless of their socioeconomic background. The country provides 12 years of compulsory education, including primary and lower secondary education. Additionally, measures are in place to support students with special educational needs. Poland has a predominantly public education system, meaning the government funds education. This helps reduce financial barriers to access.
The PiS government made significant efforts to increase the availability of childcare, making this one of the most important elements of its family-oriented policies. In 2021, more than 90% of pupils from age three to the starting age of compulsory education at the primary level were enrolled in early childhood education, a figure close to the EU average (Eurostat 2023). Over the last decade, the number of available places in preschools in Poland has been increasing. Residents of large cities and surrounding areas, as well as those in the western counties of Poland, have easier access to preschools than do other populations. Conversely, underfunded preschools are primarily located in the counties of the Podlaskie, Lubelskie and Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodships, which are among the country’s poorest regions.
The government introduced the Family Care Capital Act, which, as of April 1, 2022 provided subsidies for children under three years old to attend childcare institutions. The funds are transferred directly to municipalities, private entities, foundations, associations and individuals. The goal is to facilitate access to childcare institutions, particularly in areas that lack public services.
Despite these efforts, challenges related to equitable access have persisted. Socioeconomic factors continue to influence educational outcomes, and there are regional disparities in the quality of education. Additionally, issues such as the availability of resources, teacher quality and infrastructure affect the overall equity of the system. Among the biggest challenges have been access to higher education institutions due to high living costs in cities, along with insufficient support schemes for students.
Poland has also recognized the importance of providing second-chance education opportunities for individuals who may have left the formal education system with low skill levels. All types of adult schools – primary, secondary and post-secondary – are run by the state. In the case of post-secondary schools, most are private (Statistics Poland 2023). The state has established adult education centers (Ośrodki Kształcenia Ustawicznego Dorosłych, OKUD) that offer a variety of courses and programs aimed at adults who wish to improve their skills or obtain additional qualifications. There is also an emphasis on vocational education and training (VET). However, the validation of non-formal and informal learning systems does not work efficiently (Eurydice 2023).
The PiS government made significant efforts to increase the availability of childcare, making this one of the most important elements of its family-oriented policies. In 2021, more than 90% of pupils from age three to the starting age of compulsory education at the primary level were enrolled in early childhood education, a figure close to the EU average (Eurostat 2023). Over the last decade, the number of available places in preschools in Poland has been increasing. Residents of large cities and surrounding areas, as well as those in the western counties of Poland, have easier access to preschools than do other populations. Conversely, underfunded preschools are primarily located in the counties of the Podlaskie, Lubelskie and Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodships, which are among the country’s poorest regions.
The government introduced the Family Care Capital Act, which, as of April 1, 2022 provided subsidies for children under three years old to attend childcare institutions. The funds are transferred directly to municipalities, private entities, foundations, associations and individuals. The goal is to facilitate access to childcare institutions, particularly in areas that lack public services.
Despite these efforts, challenges related to equitable access have persisted. Socioeconomic factors continue to influence educational outcomes, and there are regional disparities in the quality of education. Additionally, issues such as the availability of resources, teacher quality and infrastructure affect the overall equity of the system. Among the biggest challenges have been access to higher education institutions due to high living costs in cities, along with insufficient support schemes for students.
Poland has also recognized the importance of providing second-chance education opportunities for individuals who may have left the formal education system with low skill levels. All types of adult schools – primary, secondary and post-secondary – are run by the state. In the case of post-secondary schools, most are private (Statistics Poland 2023). The state has established adult education centers (Ośrodki Kształcenia Ustawicznego Dorosłych, OKUD) that offer a variety of courses and programs aimed at adults who wish to improve their skills or obtain additional qualifications. There is also an emphasis on vocational education and training (VET). However, the validation of non-formal and informal learning systems does not work efficiently (Eurydice 2023).
Citations:
Euridice. 2023. “Poland.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/poland/main-providers
Eurostat. 2023. “Share of pupils from age 3 years to the starting age of compulsory education at primary level who are enrolled in early childhood education.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Share_of_pupils_from_age_3_years_to_the_starting_age_of_compulsory_education_at_primary_level_who_are_enrolled_in_early_childhood_education,_2021_(%25)_ET2023.png
Statistics Poland. 2023. “Education in the School Year 2022/2023 (Preliminary Data).” https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/education/education/education-in-the-school-year-20222023-preliminary-data,13,1.html
Euridice. 2023. “Poland.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/poland/main-providers
Eurostat. 2023. “Share of pupils from age 3 years to the starting age of compulsory education at primary level who are enrolled in early childhood education.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Share_of_pupils_from_age_3_years_to_the_starting_age_of_compulsory_education_at_primary_level_who_are_enrolled_in_early_childhood_education,_2021_(%25)_ET2023.png
Statistics Poland. 2023. “Education in the School Year 2022/2023 (Preliminary Data).” https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/education/education/education-in-the-school-year-20222023-preliminary-data,13,1.html
Spain
Spain has improved access to early childhood education across all autonomous communities. Spanish legislation ensures that every child aged three and above has a legal entitlement to a place in an early childhood education institution. Royal Decree 95/2022 establishes minimum teaching standards for early childhood education, declares the second cycle tuition-free, and outlines plans for extending free education to the first cycle, prioritizing students at risk of poverty and social exclusion.
Administrations are mandated to incrementally enhance the availability of public places in the first cycle. The RRP includes a commitment to creating 60,000 affordable public places for children under three by 2024, particularly in areas with higher risks of poverty or social exclusion and in rural regions.
Autonomous communities establish the curriculum for early childhood education and regulate complementary activities and school services. Financial support, admission processes, and the number of places vary significantly among communities. A sound monitoring system for quality is still to be established, and further cooperation is necessary to ensure equal access and quality.
Primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education are compulsory and cost-free. The Law of Education includes measures to ensure that students from low-income families are equally represented in public and semi-private centers. Extracurricular activities that require payment will not be allowed during school hours.
According to national framework legislation, the autonomous communities must encourage the quality, equity and social inclusion of students with disabilities, as well as equal opportunities and nondiscrimination. The role of the National Institute for Educational Evaluation could be fostered.
School failure is significant in Spain, with the percentage of students not achieving the compulsory education diploma below 15%. This proportion has stabilized after a decade of substantial decrease. Students who fail cannot continue and eventually leave formal education. The education law aims to increase educational and training opportunities for all, improve educational outcomes, and limit grade repetition. The Spanish government and autonomous communities are jointly implementing cooperation programs to promote second-chance education opportunities for students at risk of repeating grades or leaving school, through targeted pedagogical and psychological guidance. However, awareness of these opportunities for re-entry into education and training remains low.
Administrations are mandated to incrementally enhance the availability of public places in the first cycle. The RRP includes a commitment to creating 60,000 affordable public places for children under three by 2024, particularly in areas with higher risks of poverty or social exclusion and in rural regions.
Autonomous communities establish the curriculum for early childhood education and regulate complementary activities and school services. Financial support, admission processes, and the number of places vary significantly among communities. A sound monitoring system for quality is still to be established, and further cooperation is necessary to ensure equal access and quality.
Primary, secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education are compulsory and cost-free. The Law of Education includes measures to ensure that students from low-income families are equally represented in public and semi-private centers. Extracurricular activities that require payment will not be allowed during school hours.
According to national framework legislation, the autonomous communities must encourage the quality, equity and social inclusion of students with disabilities, as well as equal opportunities and nondiscrimination. The role of the National Institute for Educational Evaluation could be fostered.
School failure is significant in Spain, with the percentage of students not achieving the compulsory education diploma below 15%. This proportion has stabilized after a decade of substantial decrease. Students who fail cannot continue and eventually leave formal education. The education law aims to increase educational and training opportunities for all, improve educational outcomes, and limit grade repetition. The Spanish government and autonomous communities are jointly implementing cooperation programs to promote second-chance education opportunities for students at risk of repeating grades or leaving school, through targeted pedagogical and psychological guidance. However, awareness of these opportunities for re-entry into education and training remains low.
Citations:
OCDE. 2023. Propuestas para un plan de acción para reducir el abandono escolar temprano en España.
https://www.oecd.org/education/propuestas-para-un-plan-de-accion-para-reducir-el-abandono-escolar-temprano-en-espana-9bc3285d-es.htm
Eurydice. 2023. “Spain.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/spain/overview
OCDE. 2023. Propuestas para un plan de acción para reducir el abandono escolar temprano en España.
https://www.oecd.org/education/propuestas-para-un-plan-de-accion-para-reducir-el-abandono-escolar-temprano-en-espana-9bc3285d-es.htm
Eurydice. 2023. “Spain.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/spain/overview
Netherlands
Despite political rhetoric, child care in the Netherlands is not free, tainted by the child allowance scandal. Simplifications to financial compensation rules in 2023 aim to improve access. Municipalities are investing in early childhood education, particularly language education. However, the number of students referred to special education remains consistent.
Several factors contribute to inequitable access. The teacher shortage results in large classes, especially in schools with vulnerable children (G5), raising concerns about resource distribution. In rural areas, declining populations lead to class and school mergers, posing challenges in retaining qualified teachers. The influx of Ukrainian refugees strains the system, jeopardizing equal access. Efforts to address disparities in school advice and adapt the CITO examination aim to rectify issues. However, transition ease between lower and higher secondary schools hasn’t increased, and access to higher education remains unequal, particularly for students from lower-income households or those with less-educated parents. Growing dissatisfaction with mainstream schools is reflected in the increasing applications to private unfunded schools.
The Netherlands mandates a minimum qualification level, the “starter qualification,” for all youth. Municipalities invest in adult education and low literacy through an earmarked funding program. However, assessing the quality of these offerings is challenging due to the mechanisms of public tenders. Large community colleges often offer one-size-fits-all classes in bulk, hindering the ability to tailor education to individual needs.
Several factors contribute to inequitable access. The teacher shortage results in large classes, especially in schools with vulnerable children (G5), raising concerns about resource distribution. In rural areas, declining populations lead to class and school mergers, posing challenges in retaining qualified teachers. The influx of Ukrainian refugees strains the system, jeopardizing equal access. Efforts to address disparities in school advice and adapt the CITO examination aim to rectify issues. However, transition ease between lower and higher secondary schools hasn’t increased, and access to higher education remains unequal, particularly for students from lower-income households or those with less-educated parents. Growing dissatisfaction with mainstream schools is reflected in the increasing applications to private unfunded schools.
The Netherlands mandates a minimum qualification level, the “starter qualification,” for all youth. Municipalities invest in adult education and low literacy through an earmarked funding program. However, assessing the quality of these offerings is challenging due to the mechanisms of public tenders. Large community colleges often offer one-size-fits-all classes in bulk, hindering the ability to tailor education to individual needs.
Citations:
https://husite.nl/duurzaam/onderwijs-in-duurzaamheid-moet-meer-aandacht-krijgen-op-lerarenopleidingen/
Trendrapportage Arbeidsmarkt Leraren po, vo en mbo. 2023. Ministerie van OC&W, December, Den Haag.
De staat van onderwijs 2023, Inspectie van het Onderwijs 2023
Dossier Duurzame ontwikkeling SLO. https://www.slo.nl/thema/vakspecifieke-thema/natuur-techniek/duurzame/
Verklaren verschillen in vaardigheden de verschillen in schooladvies naar sociaaleconomische status? 2022. https://www.cpb.nl/verklaren-verschillen-vaardigheden-de-verschillen-schooladvies-naar-sociaaleconomische-status
Een blik op de Nederlandse positie in internationale onderwijsrankings, December 2022, https://www.cpb.nl/een-blik-op-de-nederlandse-positie-in-internationale-onderwijsrankings
https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/06/21/in-eerste-helft-schooljaar-kregen-veel-oekraiense-kinderen-onderwijs
https://husite.nl/duurzaam/onderwijs-in-duurzaamheid-moet-meer-aandacht-krijgen-op-lerarenopleidingen/
Trendrapportage Arbeidsmarkt Leraren po, vo en mbo. 2023. Ministerie van OC&W, December, Den Haag.
De staat van onderwijs 2023, Inspectie van het Onderwijs 2023
Dossier Duurzame ontwikkeling SLO. https://www.slo.nl/thema/vakspecifieke-thema/natuur-techniek/duurzame/
Verklaren verschillen in vaardigheden de verschillen in schooladvies naar sociaaleconomische status? 2022. https://www.cpb.nl/verklaren-verschillen-vaardigheden-de-verschillen-schooladvies-naar-sociaaleconomische-status
Een blik op de Nederlandse positie in internationale onderwijsrankings, December 2022, https://www.cpb.nl/een-blik-op-de-nederlandse-positie-in-internationale-onderwijsrankings
https://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2023/06/21/in-eerste-helft-schooljaar-kregen-veel-oekraiense-kinderen-onderwijs
6
Austria
The Austrian educational system does not perform to its potential. Given Austria’s economic position, the country should have a significantly higher number of tertiary graduates. According to research institutions and experts such as the OECD, the reason for this underperformance lies in the early division of children into multiple educational tracks, which occurs after the fourth grade. Despite some improvements and the increasing role of the Fachhochschulen (universities of applied science, polytechnics), the Austrian educational system remains highly socially selective. Parents’ social and educational status heavily influences students’ ability to access higher education, aligning with Austria’s low score in the OECD PISA assessment regarding the socioeconomic background of pupils (23rd out of 30 in 2022).
Inequity has long been an issue in higher education, particularly within university systems. Access to the Austrian university system remains highly unequal, with children of parents holding tertiary education degrees and/or higher incomes enjoying better odds of graduating from a university. The new university reform bill, passed by the ÖVP-Green governing majority in March 2021, has further increased social inequity in higher education. Among other changes, the law introduced a new regime requiring students to earn a higher number of European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) points per semester to continue their studies, making it increasingly difficult to combine university education with employment in Austria.
The Austrian dual system of vocational training, which combines on-the-job training and classroom education, receives better marks. This system is primarily aimed at individuals who want to start working at age 15 but is accessible up to age 18. Despite its proven strengths, critics have identified several weaknesses in comparison with the neighboring German dual system and pointed to the continued limited public appreciation of this educational sector.
There is an established system of second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low skill levels upon leaving school. However, it has been criticized for being overly traditional and less effective than it could be.
Early childhood education is still lacking, partly because of the resistance of the ÖVP government and the socially conservative preferences of Austrians compared to Northern Europeans.
Inequity has long been an issue in higher education, particularly within university systems. Access to the Austrian university system remains highly unequal, with children of parents holding tertiary education degrees and/or higher incomes enjoying better odds of graduating from a university. The new university reform bill, passed by the ÖVP-Green governing majority in March 2021, has further increased social inequity in higher education. Among other changes, the law introduced a new regime requiring students to earn a higher number of European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) points per semester to continue their studies, making it increasingly difficult to combine university education with employment in Austria.
The Austrian dual system of vocational training, which combines on-the-job training and classroom education, receives better marks. This system is primarily aimed at individuals who want to start working at age 15 but is accessible up to age 18. Despite its proven strengths, critics have identified several weaknesses in comparison with the neighboring German dual system and pointed to the continued limited public appreciation of this educational sector.
There is an established system of second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low skill levels upon leaving school. However, it has been criticized for being overly traditional and less effective than it could be.
Early childhood education is still lacking, partly because of the resistance of the ÖVP government and the socially conservative preferences of Austrians compared to Northern Europeans.
Citations:
https://kurier.at/wirtschaft/karriere/warum-sich-ein-lehrabschluss-ueber-den-zweiten-bildungsweg-lohnt/401802811
https://www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20210622_OTS0105/mega-bildungsstiftung-praesentiert-1-
oesterreichischen-bildungsklima-index-anhaenge
https://kurier.at/freizeit/leben-liebe-sex/die-corona-krise-wird-zum-turbo-fuer-die-schulreform/401184538
https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000127332990/auf-ab-und-quer-fuer-oesterreichische-universitaeten
https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000122916023/hat-oesterreich-tatsaechlich-das-beste-dualeausbildungssystem
https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2017/15005/pdf/Dossier_2017_Brueckner.pdf
https://kurier.at/wirtschaft/karriere/warum-sich-ein-lehrabschluss-ueber-den-zweiten-bildungsweg-lohnt/401802811
https://www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20210622_OTS0105/mega-bildungsstiftung-praesentiert-1-
oesterreichischen-bildungsklima-index-anhaenge
https://kurier.at/freizeit/leben-liebe-sex/die-corona-krise-wird-zum-turbo-fuer-die-schulreform/401184538
https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000127332990/auf-ab-und-quer-fuer-oesterreichische-universitaeten
https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000122916023/hat-oesterreich-tatsaechlich-das-beste-dualeausbildungssystem
https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2017/15005/pdf/Dossier_2017_Brueckner.pdf
France
Compulsory education in France begins at age three, which means 100% of these children attend preschool institutions. It ends at age 16, although 90% of the population is enrolled until age 17. There is a de facto training obligation until age 18. The overall child-teacher ratio is comparatively high at 23:1 (compared to 15:1 in the OECD overall), but the ratio falls 14:1 in primary schools, thanks to specialized preschool helpers.
Although public expenditure per student is above the OECD average at the secondary level, it remains lower at the primary level, despite catch-up efforts that have been ongoing since 2012 (Girard 2023).
The 2022 PISA study confirmed that French students’ performance was more strongly correlated with socioeconomic status than was the case elsewhere. France places in the lower third of OECD countries regarding math attainment and socioeconomic background. It also has an above-average share of low achievers across all three PISA test categories.
A recent study suggests that the influence of socioeconomic status on performance is evident beginning as early as preschool (see Goudeau et al. 2023).
Although public expenditure per student is above the OECD average at the secondary level, it remains lower at the primary level, despite catch-up efforts that have been ongoing since 2012 (Girard 2023).
The 2022 PISA study confirmed that French students’ performance was more strongly correlated with socioeconomic status than was the case elsewhere. France places in the lower third of OECD countries regarding math attainment and socioeconomic background. It also has an above-average share of low achievers across all three PISA test categories.
A recent study suggests that the influence of socioeconomic status on performance is evident beginning as early as preschool (see Goudeau et al. 2023).
Citations:
Goudeau, Sébastien, et al. 2023. “Unequal Opportunities from the Start: Socioeconomic Disparities in Classroom Participation in Preschool.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 152 (11): 3135–3152. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001437.
Girard. 2023. “Dépenses d’éducation: la France investit peu par rapport aux autres pays de l’OCDE.” L’Étudiant/EducPros, June 1. Retrieved 11 March 2024 from https://www.letudiant.fr/educpros/actualite/depenses-deducation-la-france-investit-peu-par-rapport-aux-autres-pays-de-locde.html
Goudeau, Sébastien, et al. 2023. “Unequal Opportunities from the Start: Socioeconomic Disparities in Classroom Participation in Preschool.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 152 (11): 3135–3152. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001437.
Girard. 2023. “Dépenses d’éducation: la France investit peu par rapport aux autres pays de l’OCDE.” L’Étudiant/EducPros, June 1. Retrieved 11 March 2024 from https://www.letudiant.fr/educpros/actualite/depenses-deducation-la-france-investit-peu-par-rapport-aux-autres-pays-de-locde.html
Germany
School attendance in Germany is compulsory, with the number of mandatory years varying between nine and ten years depending on the state. Preprimary education, in contrast, is not mandatory. However, there are regulations ensuring that children have access to early childhood development and care (Edelstein, 2013).
On the federal level, Article 24 of Book 8 of the German Social Code – Child and Youth Services – regulates that children from ages one to three, as well as children from age three until the beginning of primary school, have a legal claim to early childhood development, care, and preprimary education. In March 2023, 90.1% of children between the ages of three and six, as well as 36.4% of children below the age of three, were enrolled in child daycares. The childcare quotas vary across individual states. In Bremen, for instance, only 86% of children over three years old attend child daycare, while the percentage is considerably higher in Thuringia at 94.4% (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2023).
While children from the age of one on have the right to a childcare slot, the demand exceeds the supply of available slots, meaning not every child has access to preprimary education. This particularly applies to children below three years of age, as the need and actual rate of childcare for this group differ by 13.6 percentage points (BMFSFJ, 2023). A study by the Federal Institute for Population Research showed that disadvantaged families are disproportionately affected by this issue. Children below three from families vulnerable to poverty and with parents with low levels of education are less likely to receive a place in childcare. Furthermore, only 24% of children who do not speak German at home are in childcare, compared to 38% of children from primarily German-speaking households. These findings are problematic, as these children could particularly benefit from preprimary education (Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung, 2023).
Nevertheless, the share of children enrolled in early childhood education systems in Germany is still above the OECD average and the EU25 average (OECD, 2023).
Regarding primary and secondary education, the previously mentioned compulsory schooling (Schulpflicht) is regulated by the school laws of the respective state, with the specific structure varying between states. Once schooling is no longer compulsory, secondary schools have mandatory attendance (Deutscher Bundestag, 2019). These regulations result in high enrollment rates in Germany, with a rate of 99% for the age group of six to fourteen and 88% for ages 15 to 19, which is above the OECD average (OECD, 2023).
During primary school, all children, regardless of socioeconomic background, attend the same educational institutions. Depending on the state, primary education extends from year one to year four or until year six. Secondary education is divided into different school forms with varying levels of education. Students receive a recommendation for secondary school based on grades and, occasionally, other criteria such as learning behavior (Schullaufbahnempfehlung). While it is not mandatory to follow this recommendation, some states require students to take an entrance exam or pass a probationary period if they choose a non-recommended type of school (Edelstein, 2013).
Equitable access to all levels of secondary and tertiary education, regardless of socioeconomic background, is an issue in Germany. For example, the probability of a child attending the highest level of secondary schooling (Gymnasium) is only 21.1% if no parent graduated with an Abitur and the family’s net monthly household income is below €2,600. This probability increases to 80.3% if both parents have an Abitur and earn a net monthly household income of over €5,500 (Wößmann et al., 2023). Similarly, only 27% of students from non-academic households go on to study at a university, while this share is 79% for students from academic households (Stifterverband, 2022).
Additionally, the German education system offers second-chance education opportunities (Zweiter Bildungsweg, ZBW). The ZBW is part of adult education and enables adults to obtain a school-leaving certificate later in life. This opportunity exists for all levels of secondary education. However, since the ZBW, like other parts of the education system, is regulated by the states, individual regulations and opportunities vary depending on the state. Despite the availability of second-chance education, the overall number of people obtaining school-leaving qualifications through this route is rather small, with around 50,000 participants (Käpplinger, Reuter and Pfeil, 2020).
On the federal level, Article 24 of Book 8 of the German Social Code – Child and Youth Services – regulates that children from ages one to three, as well as children from age three until the beginning of primary school, have a legal claim to early childhood development, care, and preprimary education. In March 2023, 90.1% of children between the ages of three and six, as well as 36.4% of children below the age of three, were enrolled in child daycares. The childcare quotas vary across individual states. In Bremen, for instance, only 86% of children over three years old attend child daycare, while the percentage is considerably higher in Thuringia at 94.4% (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2023).
While children from the age of one on have the right to a childcare slot, the demand exceeds the supply of available slots, meaning not every child has access to preprimary education. This particularly applies to children below three years of age, as the need and actual rate of childcare for this group differ by 13.6 percentage points (BMFSFJ, 2023). A study by the Federal Institute for Population Research showed that disadvantaged families are disproportionately affected by this issue. Children below three from families vulnerable to poverty and with parents with low levels of education are less likely to receive a place in childcare. Furthermore, only 24% of children who do not speak German at home are in childcare, compared to 38% of children from primarily German-speaking households. These findings are problematic, as these children could particularly benefit from preprimary education (Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung, 2023).
Nevertheless, the share of children enrolled in early childhood education systems in Germany is still above the OECD average and the EU25 average (OECD, 2023).
Regarding primary and secondary education, the previously mentioned compulsory schooling (Schulpflicht) is regulated by the school laws of the respective state, with the specific structure varying between states. Once schooling is no longer compulsory, secondary schools have mandatory attendance (Deutscher Bundestag, 2019). These regulations result in high enrollment rates in Germany, with a rate of 99% for the age group of six to fourteen and 88% for ages 15 to 19, which is above the OECD average (OECD, 2023).
During primary school, all children, regardless of socioeconomic background, attend the same educational institutions. Depending on the state, primary education extends from year one to year four or until year six. Secondary education is divided into different school forms with varying levels of education. Students receive a recommendation for secondary school based on grades and, occasionally, other criteria such as learning behavior (Schullaufbahnempfehlung). While it is not mandatory to follow this recommendation, some states require students to take an entrance exam or pass a probationary period if they choose a non-recommended type of school (Edelstein, 2013).
Equitable access to all levels of secondary and tertiary education, regardless of socioeconomic background, is an issue in Germany. For example, the probability of a child attending the highest level of secondary schooling (Gymnasium) is only 21.1% if no parent graduated with an Abitur and the family’s net monthly household income is below €2,600. This probability increases to 80.3% if both parents have an Abitur and earn a net monthly household income of over €5,500 (Wößmann et al., 2023). Similarly, only 27% of students from non-academic households go on to study at a university, while this share is 79% for students from academic households (Stifterverband, 2022).
Additionally, the German education system offers second-chance education opportunities (Zweiter Bildungsweg, ZBW). The ZBW is part of adult education and enables adults to obtain a school-leaving certificate later in life. This opportunity exists for all levels of secondary education. However, since the ZBW, like other parts of the education system, is regulated by the states, individual regulations and opportunities vary depending on the state. Despite the availability of second-chance education, the overall number of people obtaining school-leaving qualifications through this route is rather small, with around 50,000 participants (Käpplinger, Reuter and Pfeil, 2020).
Citations:
BMFSFJ. 2023. “92 Prozent der Kinder von 3 Jahren bis zum Schuleintritt besuchten 2022 eine Kita.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/aktuelles/presse/pressemitteilungen/92-prozent-der-kinder-von-3-jahren-bis-zum-schuleintritt-besuchten-2022-eine-kita-228528
Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung. 2023. “Weiterhin Ungleichheiten bei der Kita-Nutzung.” Bevölkerungsforschung Aktuell 2. https://www.bib.bund.de/Publikation/2023/pdf/Bevoelkerungsforschung-Aktuell-2-2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2
Deutscher Bundestag. 2019. “Schulpflicht und Gestaltung des Schulwesens Zulässigkeit der Verpflichtung von Schülern zu gesellschaftlichem oder sozialem Engagement.” https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/678442/22ae33f7a7612a3560dfba57dd5a4549/WD-3-259-19-pdf-data.pdf
Edelstein, B. 2013. “Das Bildungssystem im Deutschland.” https://www.bpb.de/themen/bildung/dossier-bildung/163283/das-bildungssystem-in-deutschland
Käpplinger, B., Reuter, M., and P. Pfeil. 2020. “Der Zweite Bildungsweg in den Bundesländern –Strukturen und Perspektiven.” https://www.gew.de/fileadmin/media/publikationen/hv/GEW/GEW-Stiftungen/MTS_-_Gefoerderte_Projekte/20200923-Der-Zweite-Bildungsweg-in-den-Bundesl–ndern-MTS.pdf
OECD. 2023. “Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/e13bef63-en/1/3/3/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/e13bef63-en&_csp_=a4f4b3d408c9dd70d167f10de61b8717&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2023. “Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html
Stifterverband. 2022. “Hochschul-Bildungs-Report 2020, Abschlussbericht, Hochschulbildung in der Transformation.” https://www.hochschulbildungsreport.de/sites/hsbr/files/hochschul-bildungs-report_abschlussbericht_2022.pdf
Wößmann, L., Schoner, F., Freudl, V., and Pfaehler, F. 2023. “Der ifo-„Ein Herz für Kinder“- Chancenmonitor: Wie (un-)gerecht sind die Bildungschancen von Kindern aus verschiedenen Familien in Deutschland verteilt?” ifo Schnelldienst 76: 1-47. https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/sd-2023-04-freundl-et-al-chancenmonitor.pdf
BMFSFJ. 2023. “92 Prozent der Kinder von 3 Jahren bis zum Schuleintritt besuchten 2022 eine Kita.” https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/aktuelles/presse/pressemitteilungen/92-prozent-der-kinder-von-3-jahren-bis-zum-schuleintritt-besuchten-2022-eine-kita-228528
Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungsforschung. 2023. “Weiterhin Ungleichheiten bei der Kita-Nutzung.” Bevölkerungsforschung Aktuell 2. https://www.bib.bund.de/Publikation/2023/pdf/Bevoelkerungsforschung-Aktuell-2-2023.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2
Deutscher Bundestag. 2019. “Schulpflicht und Gestaltung des Schulwesens Zulässigkeit der Verpflichtung von Schülern zu gesellschaftlichem oder sozialem Engagement.” https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/678442/22ae33f7a7612a3560dfba57dd5a4549/WD-3-259-19-pdf-data.pdf
Edelstein, B. 2013. “Das Bildungssystem im Deutschland.” https://www.bpb.de/themen/bildung/dossier-bildung/163283/das-bildungssystem-in-deutschland
Käpplinger, B., Reuter, M., and P. Pfeil. 2020. “Der Zweite Bildungsweg in den Bundesländern –Strukturen und Perspektiven.” https://www.gew.de/fileadmin/media/publikationen/hv/GEW/GEW-Stiftungen/MTS_-_Gefoerderte_Projekte/20200923-Der-Zweite-Bildungsweg-in-den-Bundesl–ndern-MTS.pdf
OECD. 2023. “Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/e13bef63-en/1/3/3/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/e13bef63-en&_csp_=a4f4b3d408c9dd70d167f10de61b8717&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book
Statistisches Bundesamt. 2023. “Betreuungsquote von Kindern unter 6 Jahren nach Bundesländern.” https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Soziales/Kindertagesbetreuung/Tabellen/betreuungsquote.html
Stifterverband. 2022. “Hochschul-Bildungs-Report 2020, Abschlussbericht, Hochschulbildung in der Transformation.” https://www.hochschulbildungsreport.de/sites/hsbr/files/hochschul-bildungs-report_abschlussbericht_2022.pdf
Wößmann, L., Schoner, F., Freudl, V., and Pfaehler, F. 2023. “Der ifo-„Ein Herz für Kinder“- Chancenmonitor: Wie (un-)gerecht sind die Bildungschancen von Kindern aus verschiedenen Familien in Deutschland verteilt?” ifo Schnelldienst 76: 1-47. https://www.ifo.de/DocDL/sd-2023-04-freundl-et-al-chancenmonitor.pdf
Israel
All children in Israel are eligible for free public education from age three until 12th grade. The education system ensures equal access until 12th grade regardless of a child’s economic status (Knesset Research Center 2015).
Preschool teachers are qualified and supervised by the Ministry of Education. The preschool curriculum aims to prepare all children for primary education. Children from peripheral areas and localities with low socioeconomic status are also eligible for after-school programs. In other localities, after-school programs are partially subsidized by the central government and, in some cases, by the local authority.
Most daycare services for children aged under three are private. Some semi-public daycare services are supervised and subsidized by the Ministry of Labor. Low-income families pay subsidized tuition based on various criteria. Private daycare services are not supervised. Recently, the government introduced subsidies for children aged three and under who attend private daycare, although primarily through tax exemptions that benefit high earners.
Alongside the public education system, there is a private education system for ultraorthodox children. Some schools within this system are not supervised at all by the Ministry of Education, while are partially supervised. Boys’ schools that lack supervision do not teach mathematics or English. This contributes to severe inequalities, as graduates from these schools face challenges integrating into the labor market and society. The partially supervised schools offer minimal mathematics and English instruction, and their graduates also struggle in integrate into the labor market. Although girls’ schools also lack supervision, they do teach mathematics and English, and their graduates often take the general graduation exams, allowing them to enroll in universities. Notably, the current government has decided to increase funding for unsupervised schools, despite the refusal of such schools to accept any supervision or changes to their curriculum.
The regular education system is divided into three branches: general, religious and Arab. Pupils in religious schools receive preferential budgeting of approximately 30% more compared to pupils in general schools, while pupils in Arab schools suffer from reduced budgeting of about 9% less compared to pupils in general schools (Knesset Research Center 2023).
Opportunities for second-chance education exist predominantly at the local level. These programs, typically operated by nonprofit organizations and subsidized by the Ministry of Education, receive minimal funding. Universities also offer second-chance opportunities. For example, students can enroll for an additional year before their undergraduate studies, with their grades from exams taken during that year serving as a substitute for general graduation exams.
Preschool teachers are qualified and supervised by the Ministry of Education. The preschool curriculum aims to prepare all children for primary education. Children from peripheral areas and localities with low socioeconomic status are also eligible for after-school programs. In other localities, after-school programs are partially subsidized by the central government and, in some cases, by the local authority.
Most daycare services for children aged under three are private. Some semi-public daycare services are supervised and subsidized by the Ministry of Labor. Low-income families pay subsidized tuition based on various criteria. Private daycare services are not supervised. Recently, the government introduced subsidies for children aged three and under who attend private daycare, although primarily through tax exemptions that benefit high earners.
Alongside the public education system, there is a private education system for ultraorthodox children. Some schools within this system are not supervised at all by the Ministry of Education, while are partially supervised. Boys’ schools that lack supervision do not teach mathematics or English. This contributes to severe inequalities, as graduates from these schools face challenges integrating into the labor market and society. The partially supervised schools offer minimal mathematics and English instruction, and their graduates also struggle in integrate into the labor market. Although girls’ schools also lack supervision, they do teach mathematics and English, and their graduates often take the general graduation exams, allowing them to enroll in universities. Notably, the current government has decided to increase funding for unsupervised schools, despite the refusal of such schools to accept any supervision or changes to their curriculum.
The regular education system is divided into three branches: general, religious and Arab. Pupils in religious schools receive preferential budgeting of approximately 30% more compared to pupils in general schools, while pupils in Arab schools suffer from reduced budgeting of about 9% less compared to pupils in general schools (Knesset Research Center 2023).
Opportunities for second-chance education exist predominantly at the local level. These programs, typically operated by nonprofit organizations and subsidized by the Ministry of Education, receive minimal funding. Universities also offer second-chance opportunities. For example, students can enroll for an additional year before their undergraduate studies, with their grades from exams taken during that year serving as a substitute for general graduation exams.
Citations:
Knesset Research Center. 2015. “The Education System in Israel (Hebrew).” https://m.knesset.gov.il/activity/info/mmmsummaries19/education.pdf
Knesset Research Center. 2023. “Data on Average Cost per Student by Legal Status and Supervision (Hebrew).” https://fs.knesset.gov.il/globaldocs/MMM/6935acd2-de94-ed11-8152-005056aac6c3/2_6935acd2-de94-ed11-8152-005056aac6c3_11_19881.pdf
Knesset Research Center. 2015. “The Education System in Israel (Hebrew).” https://m.knesset.gov.il/activity/info/mmmsummaries19/education.pdf
Knesset Research Center. 2023. “Data on Average Cost per Student by Legal Status and Supervision (Hebrew).” https://fs.knesset.gov.il/globaldocs/MMM/6935acd2-de94-ed11-8152-005056aac6c3/2_6935acd2-de94-ed11-8152-005056aac6c3_11_19881.pdf
Italy
Equity in education in Italy is a double-edged sword. While the system ranks highly in ensuring access to all education levels, except for pre-primary where there is a shortage of places, it is much less equitable in learning outcomes. Annual national tests reveal significant differences in learning outcomes between northern-central and southern Italy. Contributing factors may include the less common presence of full-time school programs and school meals in southern Italy, as recently documented by the SVIMEZ report.
Additionally, adult education participation is low, indicating underdeveloped second-chance education. Policies are designed to ensure equal access but not sufficiently to ensure equal results, with political attention often focusing on access and neglecting outcomes.
Additionally, adult education participation is low, indicating underdeveloped second-chance education. Policies are designed to ensure equal access but not sufficiently to ensure equal results, with political attention often focusing on access and neglecting outcomes.
Citations:
INVALSI. 2023. “Rapporto Invalsi 2023.” https://invalsi-areaprove.cineca.it/docs/2022/Rilevazioni_Nazionali/Rapporto/Rapporto_Prove_INVALSI_2022.pdf
Euridyce. 2023. “Structural Indicators for Monitoring Education and Training Systems in Europe 2023.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/publications
REV: Svimez annual report: https://lnx.svimez.info/svimez/il-rapporto/
INVALSI. 2023. “Rapporto Invalsi 2023.” https://invalsi-areaprove.cineca.it/docs/2022/Rilevazioni_Nazionali/Rapporto/Rapporto_Prove_INVALSI_2022.pdf
Euridyce. 2023. “Structural Indicators for Monitoring Education and Training Systems in Europe 2023.” https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/publications
REV: Svimez annual report: https://lnx.svimez.info/svimez/il-rapporto/
New Zealand
New Zealand’s education policy aims to facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training.
Early childhood education (ECE) received a significant financial boost in the 2023 budget when the Labour-Green coalition announced an extension of the 20-hours-free ECE scheme to include two-year-olds. The government estimated this will save families about $133 a week, or nearly $7,000 a year. Additionally, the government altered the scheme’s conditions, requiring ECE centers to allow parents to enroll their children for only the free 20 hours rather than in larger blocks that forced families to pay for extra hours (Wiggins 2023). In 2018, the Labour-led administration under Ardern passed a policy making the first year of university education free. This policy resulted in a $194-million decline in borrowing for fees through student loans between 2017 and 2018 (Gerritsen 2020).
The government also seeks to support and promote Māori education, recognizing the importance of cultural identity and language in providing equitable educational opportunities. For example, the 2023 budget committed $225 million to Māori education initiatives, which according to estimates benefited 25,000 students in 325 Māori schools across the country (Wikaire-Lewis 2023).
Despite various policies and initiatives, New Zealand has one of the most unequal education systems in the industrialized world. According to UNICEF’s 2018 Innocenti Report Card, which analyzes the gaps between the highest and lowest performing pupils in OECD countries, New Zealand ranks 33rd out of 38 in the area of educational equality across preschool, primary school and secondary school levels. The reading gap at age 10 between New Zealand’s best and worst readers stands at 230 points, compared to 153 points for the Netherlands – the country with the smallest gap (UNICEF 2018). More recently, the 2022 PISA report showed declines in math and science performance, with Māori and Pasifika student performance falling faster than the average. Almost half (47%) of Māori students performed below the baseline PISA level in math in 2022, significantly higher than the 37% in 2018 (Cheng 2023).
The inequality of the education system also reflects in other indicators. Perhaps most concerningly, Māori and Pasifika students are significantly less likely than Pākehā (New Zealanders of European descent) students to leave the education system with a degree. In the 2018 census, 80.6% of Māori and 83% of Pasifika 15- to 24-year-olds had at least a level 1 qualification or equivalent, compared with 85.8% of 15- to 24-year-olds nationally. Older age groups show an even larger difference, with 73% of Māori and 72.1% of Pasifika 45- to 54-year-olds having at least a level 1 qualification or equivalent, compared with 84.6% of 45- to 54-year-olds nationally (Stats NZ 2020).
Early childhood education (ECE) received a significant financial boost in the 2023 budget when the Labour-Green coalition announced an extension of the 20-hours-free ECE scheme to include two-year-olds. The government estimated this will save families about $133 a week, or nearly $7,000 a year. Additionally, the government altered the scheme’s conditions, requiring ECE centers to allow parents to enroll their children for only the free 20 hours rather than in larger blocks that forced families to pay for extra hours (Wiggins 2023). In 2018, the Labour-led administration under Ardern passed a policy making the first year of university education free. This policy resulted in a $194-million decline in borrowing for fees through student loans between 2017 and 2018 (Gerritsen 2020).
The government also seeks to support and promote Māori education, recognizing the importance of cultural identity and language in providing equitable educational opportunities. For example, the 2023 budget committed $225 million to Māori education initiatives, which according to estimates benefited 25,000 students in 325 Māori schools across the country (Wikaire-Lewis 2023).
Despite various policies and initiatives, New Zealand has one of the most unequal education systems in the industrialized world. According to UNICEF’s 2018 Innocenti Report Card, which analyzes the gaps between the highest and lowest performing pupils in OECD countries, New Zealand ranks 33rd out of 38 in the area of educational equality across preschool, primary school and secondary school levels. The reading gap at age 10 between New Zealand’s best and worst readers stands at 230 points, compared to 153 points for the Netherlands – the country with the smallest gap (UNICEF 2018). More recently, the 2022 PISA report showed declines in math and science performance, with Māori and Pasifika student performance falling faster than the average. Almost half (47%) of Māori students performed below the baseline PISA level in math in 2022, significantly higher than the 37% in 2018 (Cheng 2023).
The inequality of the education system also reflects in other indicators. Perhaps most concerningly, Māori and Pasifika students are significantly less likely than Pākehā (New Zealanders of European descent) students to leave the education system with a degree. In the 2018 census, 80.6% of Māori and 83% of Pasifika 15- to 24-year-olds had at least a level 1 qualification or equivalent, compared with 85.8% of 15- to 24-year-olds nationally. Older age groups show an even larger difference, with 73% of Māori and 72.1% of Pasifika 45- to 54-year-olds having at least a level 1 qualification or equivalent, compared with 84.6% of 45- to 54-year-olds nationally (Stats NZ 2020).
Citations:
Cheng, D. 2023. “NZ school students’ performance falling in maths and science: Pisa report.” New Zealand Herald, December 6. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/politics/pisa-report-nz-school-students-performance-falling-in-maths-and-science/IRFO2WL2KNDABPJ2XA4CGNNJHQ/
Gerritsen, J. 2020. “Students Motivated to Enrol by Fees-free Policy Struggle with University, Research Finds.” RNZ, June 16. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/419117/students-motivated-to-enrol-by-fees-free-policy-struggle-with-university-research-finds
Stats NZ. 2020. “Education outcomes improving for Māori and Pacific peoples.” https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/education-outcomes-improving-for-maori-and-pacific-peoples
Wiggins. 2023. “Budget 2023: Savings for parents thanks to boost in early childhood education funding.” New Zealand Herald, 18 May. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/budget-2023-savings-for-parents-thanks-to-boost-in-early-childhood-education-funding/TFNC2ULEIBGINLI33AWTH6Y3IQ/
Wikaire-Lewis, M. 2023. “TAHUA2023: Over Half a Billion Dollars for Māori.” Te Ao Māori News, May 18. https://www.teaonews.co.nz/2023/05/18/tahua2023-over-half-a-billion-dollars-for-maori
Cheng, D. 2023. “NZ school students’ performance falling in maths and science: Pisa report.” New Zealand Herald, December 6. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/politics/pisa-report-nz-school-students-performance-falling-in-maths-and-science/IRFO2WL2KNDABPJ2XA4CGNNJHQ/
Gerritsen, J. 2020. “Students Motivated to Enrol by Fees-free Policy Struggle with University, Research Finds.” RNZ, June 16. https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/419117/students-motivated-to-enrol-by-fees-free-policy-struggle-with-university-research-finds
Stats NZ. 2020. “Education outcomes improving for Māori and Pacific peoples.” https://www.stats.govt.nz/news/education-outcomes-improving-for-maori-and-pacific-peoples
Wiggins. 2023. “Budget 2023: Savings for parents thanks to boost in early childhood education funding.” New Zealand Herald, 18 May. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/budget-2023-savings-for-parents-thanks-to-boost-in-early-childhood-education-funding/TFNC2ULEIBGINLI33AWTH6Y3IQ/
Wikaire-Lewis, M. 2023. “TAHUA2023: Over Half a Billion Dollars for Māori.” Te Ao Māori News, May 18. https://www.teaonews.co.nz/2023/05/18/tahua2023-over-half-a-billion-dollars-for-maori
Portugal
Portugal offers equitable free education to students regardless of their socioeconomic backgrounds. Textbooks are free for students in public schools throughout the 12 years of compulsory education. Monthly scholarships aim to curb dropout rates, enhance qualifications, and offset increased costs tied to mandatory attendance. Higher education features relatively affordable fees, accompanied by means-tested support for low-income students.
However, this contrasts with disparities in the quality of education between public and private schools. The average school scores in the 2022 national exams ranged from 15.11 (out of 20) in the highest-rated public school to 7.83 in the lowest-rated public school (Público, 2023a). Disparities are more pronounced in private schools, where the top-performing school averaged 16.36 – over twice the average of the lowest-rated school, which was 7.09.
Additionally, the ongoing wave of teacher strikes is disproportionately impacting students in public schools. As of January, several public schools, particularly in the Lisbon and Algarve regions, are struggling to find teachers to fill remaining vacancies in their timetables. High rental prices in these areas are a significant deterrent for many teachers considering job postings. In response, the government has introduced an extraordinary income support measure: during 2024, teachers assigned to the Algarve and Lisbon regions who live more than 70 kilometers from their workplace will be eligible for a maximum monthly support of up to €200. This initiative aims to alleviate the financial burden for teachers and address the staffing challenges in these regions, although its actual effectiveness is constrained by the very high rent in these regions.
Regarding early childhood, the government has recently intensified efforts to ensure universal access to affordable and accessible childcare through the “Creche Feliz” program (DRE, 2022). However, stakeholders in the field have deemed these efforts insufficient (Público, 2023b).
However, this contrasts with disparities in the quality of education between public and private schools. The average school scores in the 2022 national exams ranged from 15.11 (out of 20) in the highest-rated public school to 7.83 in the lowest-rated public school (Público, 2023a). Disparities are more pronounced in private schools, where the top-performing school averaged 16.36 – over twice the average of the lowest-rated school, which was 7.09.
Additionally, the ongoing wave of teacher strikes is disproportionately impacting students in public schools. As of January, several public schools, particularly in the Lisbon and Algarve regions, are struggling to find teachers to fill remaining vacancies in their timetables. High rental prices in these areas are a significant deterrent for many teachers considering job postings. In response, the government has introduced an extraordinary income support measure: during 2024, teachers assigned to the Algarve and Lisbon regions who live more than 70 kilometers from their workplace will be eligible for a maximum monthly support of up to €200. This initiative aims to alleviate the financial burden for teachers and address the staffing challenges in these regions, although its actual effectiveness is constrained by the very high rent in these regions.
Regarding early childhood, the government has recently intensified efforts to ensure universal access to affordable and accessible childcare through the “Creche Feliz” program (DRE, 2022). However, stakeholders in the field have deemed these efforts insufficient (Público, 2023b).
Citations:
DRE. 2022. Ordinance No. 198/2022 – Regulamenta as condições específicas de concretização da medida da gratuitidade das creches e creches familiares, integradas no sistema de cooperação, bem como das amas do Instituto da Segurança Social, I. P.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/portaria/198-2022-186721643
Público. 2023a. “Ranking das escolas: veja em que lugar ficou a sua.”
https://www.publico.pt/rankings-escolas-2022/lugar-sua-escola
Projeto de Lei 120/XV/1 – Propõe a criação de uma rede pública de creches como forma de garantir os direitos das crianças. https://www.parlamento.pt/ActividadeParlamentar/Paginas/DetalheIniciativa.aspx?BID=121557
Público. 2023. “Creche Feliz: ‘Não estávamos preparados para este aumento de crianças.’” https://www.publico.pt/2023/10/25/sociedade/noticia/creche-feliz-nao-estavamos-preparados-aumento-criancas-2067969?reloaded&rnd=0.5856044468316948
DRE. 2022. Ordinance No. 198/2022 – Regulamenta as condições específicas de concretização da medida da gratuitidade das creches e creches familiares, integradas no sistema de cooperação, bem como das amas do Instituto da Segurança Social, I. P.
https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/portaria/198-2022-186721643
Público. 2023a. “Ranking das escolas: veja em que lugar ficou a sua.”
https://www.publico.pt/rankings-escolas-2022/lugar-sua-escola
Projeto de Lei 120/XV/1 – Propõe a criação de uma rede pública de creches como forma de garantir os direitos das crianças. https://www.parlamento.pt/ActividadeParlamentar/Paginas/DetalheIniciativa.aspx?BID=121557
Público. 2023. “Creche Feliz: ‘Não estávamos preparados para este aumento de crianças.’” https://www.publico.pt/2023/10/25/sociedade/noticia/creche-feliz-nao-estavamos-preparados-aumento-criancas-2067969?reloaded&rnd=0.5856044468316948
UK
All education providers across the UK are subject to inspections and a regulatory framework designed to assure quality. In England, OFSTED is responsible for inspecting schools; in Wales, it is Estyn; in Scotland, Education Scotland; and in Northern Ireland, the Education and Training Inspectorate. These inspections evaluate school quality and can impose stringent recommendations and gradings, aiming to provide parents with informed choices about where to send their children. However, following the suicide of a headteacher who received an “inadequate” rating – and a coroner’s verdict blaming the inspection outcome – OFSTED announced in December 2023 that it was suspending inspections to rethink its approach.
Despite these inspection regimes, geographical differences in school quality persist, often affecting local house prices. High-quality schools can be found in both affluent and deprived areas. Enhancing educational opportunities is part of the government’s “leveling-up” agenda, although equal access does not necessarily lead to equal outcomes. School exam crises in 2020 highlighted systemic inequalities in educational outcomes. The UK and devolved governments, in coordination with qualifications agencies, approved the use of an algorithm to modify teacher-assessed grades, which initially resulted in downgrading scores in deprived areas. Attempts to avoid similar public outcry in 2021 were successful, but the underlying inequalities remain (Kippin and Cairney 2023).
Entry to the best universities is competitive, and there has long been a bias favoring privately educated pupils at institutions like Cambridge and Oxford, as well as top universities in Scotland. Private pupils often benefit from greater familiarity with entry requirements, the quality of their schools, and family connections. However, in recent years, Oxbridge has made significant efforts to attract students from poorer backgrounds, reducing the proportion of private entrants, although they remain overrepresented. High fees and the terms of student loans are also mentioned as potential deterrents to university applicants from poorer backgrounds, although the steady increase in enrollments suggests otherwise.
Support for “second-chance” educational opportunities has faced funding cuts since 2010 and erratic policy changes, as highlighted in an FE Week article celebrating the 60th anniversary of the National Extension College, a key provider. While new initiatives in further education (see “Policies Targeting Quality Education”) may improve the situation, the offer has clearly been inadequate, and the recent rise in NEETs is a disappointment.
Despite these inspection regimes, geographical differences in school quality persist, often affecting local house prices. High-quality schools can be found in both affluent and deprived areas. Enhancing educational opportunities is part of the government’s “leveling-up” agenda, although equal access does not necessarily lead to equal outcomes. School exam crises in 2020 highlighted systemic inequalities in educational outcomes. The UK and devolved governments, in coordination with qualifications agencies, approved the use of an algorithm to modify teacher-assessed grades, which initially resulted in downgrading scores in deprived areas. Attempts to avoid similar public outcry in 2021 were successful, but the underlying inequalities remain (Kippin and Cairney 2023).
Entry to the best universities is competitive, and there has long been a bias favoring privately educated pupils at institutions like Cambridge and Oxford, as well as top universities in Scotland. Private pupils often benefit from greater familiarity with entry requirements, the quality of their schools, and family connections. However, in recent years, Oxbridge has made significant efforts to attract students from poorer backgrounds, reducing the proportion of private entrants, although they remain overrepresented. High fees and the terms of student loans are also mentioned as potential deterrents to university applicants from poorer backgrounds, although the steady increase in enrollments suggests otherwise.
Support for “second-chance” educational opportunities has faced funding cuts since 2010 and erratic policy changes, as highlighted in an FE Week article celebrating the 60th anniversary of the National Extension College, a key provider. While new initiatives in further education (see “Policies Targeting Quality Education”) may improve the situation, the offer has clearly been inadequate, and the recent rise in NEETs is a disappointment.
Citations:
https://feweek.co.uk/national-extension-college-sixty-years-of-second-chance-learning/
Sean Kippin and Paul Cairney. 2023. “COVID-19 and the Second Exams Fiasco Across the UK: Four Nations Trying to Avoid Immediate Policy Failure.” British Politics 18 (1): 151-72. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41293-022-00202-1
https://feweek.co.uk/national-extension-college-sixty-years-of-second-chance-learning/
Sean Kippin and Paul Cairney. 2023. “COVID-19 and the Second Exams Fiasco Across the UK: Four Nations Trying to Avoid Immediate Policy Failure.” British Politics 18 (1): 151-72. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41293-022-00202-1
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
Australia
Australia’s educational resources and opportunities are not equally available to all students.
In schools, significant geographical and gender disparities exist, with boys underperforming relative to girls (Hare 2022). Geographic disparities reflect broader inequities in resources available to government schools compared with non-government schools (Hare 2024).
Child care and early childhood development are mostly delivered by private providers. While heavily subsidized, fees remain a considerable barrier to uptake. State governments provide kindergarten for children aged 4, and in some states for children aged 3, typically under 16 hours per week. Fees vary across jurisdictions, and attendance is below 100% as kindergarten is not compulsory.
In the university sector, significant geographical divides persist, with urban youth more likely to attend university than rural counterparts (O’Shea 2023). Indigenous communities face significant educational disadvantages. However, the deferred-repayment system for levying tuition fees (the Higher Education Contribution Scheme and the Higher Education Loan Program) and the availability of income support for students in the form of Youth Allowance, Austudy and Abstudy, mean that barriers to attendance for disadvantaged students are relatively low (Norton 2023). The persistence of under-representation of students from disadvantaged backgrounds in higher education and other inequities, largely stem from sources unconnected to the higher education system itself, such as disparities in access to high-quality schooling.
There are multiple pathways to both vocational education and higher education, and mature-age entry into post-school education is common.
In schools, significant geographical and gender disparities exist, with boys underperforming relative to girls (Hare 2022). Geographic disparities reflect broader inequities in resources available to government schools compared with non-government schools (Hare 2024).
Child care and early childhood development are mostly delivered by private providers. While heavily subsidized, fees remain a considerable barrier to uptake. State governments provide kindergarten for children aged 4, and in some states for children aged 3, typically under 16 hours per week. Fees vary across jurisdictions, and attendance is below 100% as kindergarten is not compulsory.
In the university sector, significant geographical divides persist, with urban youth more likely to attend university than rural counterparts (O’Shea 2023). Indigenous communities face significant educational disadvantages. However, the deferred-repayment system for levying tuition fees (the Higher Education Contribution Scheme and the Higher Education Loan Program) and the availability of income support for students in the form of Youth Allowance, Austudy and Abstudy, mean that barriers to attendance for disadvantaged students are relatively low (Norton 2023). The persistence of under-representation of students from disadvantaged backgrounds in higher education and other inequities, largely stem from sources unconnected to the higher education system itself, such as disparities in access to high-quality schooling.
There are multiple pathways to both vocational education and higher education, and mature-age entry into post-school education is common.
Citations:
Hare, J. 2022. “Why Australia’s Students Keep Falling Behind.” Financial Review September 30. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/education/why-australia-s-students-keep-falling-behind-20220928-p5blna
O’Shea, S. 2023. “These 5 equity ideas should be at the heart of the Universities Accord.” The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/these-5-equity-ideas-should-be-at-the-heart-of-the-universities-accord-203418
Norton, A. 2023. Mapping Australian Higher Education 2023. Canberra: ANU Centre for Social Research and Methods. https://csrm.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/docs/2023/10/Mapping_Australian_higher_education_2023_005.pdf
Hare, J. 2024. “Underfunding of Public Schools Fuels Achievement Gap, Analysis Shows.” Financial Review January 23. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/education/underfunding-of-public-schools-fuels-achievement-gap-analysis-shows-20240122-p5ez47
Hare, J. 2022. “Why Australia’s Students Keep Falling Behind.” Financial Review September 30. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/education/why-australia-s-students-keep-falling-behind-20220928-p5blna
O’Shea, S. 2023. “These 5 equity ideas should be at the heart of the Universities Accord.” The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/these-5-equity-ideas-should-be-at-the-heart-of-the-universities-accord-203418
Norton, A. 2023. Mapping Australian Higher Education 2023. Canberra: ANU Centre for Social Research and Methods. https://csrm.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/docs/2023/10/Mapping_Australian_higher_education_2023_005.pdf
Hare, J. 2024. “Underfunding of Public Schools Fuels Achievement Gap, Analysis Shows.” Financial Review January 23. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/education/underfunding-of-public-schools-fuels-achievement-gap-analysis-shows-20240122-p5ez47
Greece
The share of Greek children (ages 3 – 5) in early childhood education and care increased rapidly from 77% in 2015 to 81% in 2022. However, compared to other OECD countries, Greece remains a laggard in this regard (Eurostat 2022a).
However, the education system ensures equitable access to all levels of education, regardless of socioeconomic background, through tuition-free primary, secondary, and tertiary education. All Greek universities are public and do not charge any tuition for undergraduate or PhD programs.
The education system offers second-chance opportunities for individuals with low skill levels upon leaving formal education. For instance, there are “second chance” public schools for early school leavers who did not complete secondary education. Additionally, the Hellenic Open University – a public institution modeled after the Open University of the UK – provides university-level educational opportunities for high school graduates who entered the labor market directly rather than proceeding to tertiary education.
The educational opportunities and achievements of pupils vary according to their socioeconomic background. In the largest Greek cities, numerous private primary and secondary schools exist. Parents who can afford it often enroll their children in these private schools rather than the local public schools in their neighborhoods. The infrastructure and effective hours of schooling in private schools are almost always superior to those in public schools. Evidence shows the impact of socioeconomic status on educational achievement. In terms of PISA tests, Greece demonstrates one of the strongest associations between results in mathematics and economic, cultural, and social status (ESCS; PISA 2022) compared to other EU countries.
Success in the competitive entrance examinations to public universities, which 18-year-old students take, also depends on socioeconomic status. Public schools do not adequately prepare students for these highly competitive exams. To increase their chances of success, students from middle- and upper-class families enroll in fee-supported private cramming schools, where they receive more systematic instruction than they do in public high schools.
To sum up, although education in Greece is provided free of charge at all levels, allowing even the poorest strata to receive an education, the current policy approach in the education system hinders rather than facilitates equitable access to high-quality education and training.
However, the education system ensures equitable access to all levels of education, regardless of socioeconomic background, through tuition-free primary, secondary, and tertiary education. All Greek universities are public and do not charge any tuition for undergraduate or PhD programs.
The education system offers second-chance opportunities for individuals with low skill levels upon leaving formal education. For instance, there are “second chance” public schools for early school leavers who did not complete secondary education. Additionally, the Hellenic Open University – a public institution modeled after the Open University of the UK – provides university-level educational opportunities for high school graduates who entered the labor market directly rather than proceeding to tertiary education.
The educational opportunities and achievements of pupils vary according to their socioeconomic background. In the largest Greek cities, numerous private primary and secondary schools exist. Parents who can afford it often enroll their children in these private schools rather than the local public schools in their neighborhoods. The infrastructure and effective hours of schooling in private schools are almost always superior to those in public schools. Evidence shows the impact of socioeconomic status on educational achievement. In terms of PISA tests, Greece demonstrates one of the strongest associations between results in mathematics and economic, cultural, and social status (ESCS; PISA 2022) compared to other EU countries.
Success in the competitive entrance examinations to public universities, which 18-year-old students take, also depends on socioeconomic status. Public schools do not adequately prepare students for these highly competitive exams. To increase their chances of success, students from middle- and upper-class families enroll in fee-supported private cramming schools, where they receive more systematic instruction than they do in public high schools.
To sum up, although education in Greece is provided free of charge at all levels, allowing even the poorest strata to receive an education, the current policy approach in the education system hinders rather than facilitates equitable access to high-quality education and training.
Citations:
Eurostat. 2022. “Children in Formal Childcare or Education by Age Group and Duration – % Over the Population of Each Age Group – EU-SILC Survey.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_caindformal/default/table?lang=en
PISA. 2022. “PISA 2022 Results (Volume I), The State of Learning and Equity in Education, Figure I.4.13.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2022-results-volume-i_53f23881-en https://stat.link/4q3apj
The website of the Hellenic Open University (EAP) is https://www.eap.gr/en/
Eurostat. 2022. “Children in Formal Childcare or Education by Age Group and Duration – % Over the Population of Each Age Group – EU-SILC Survey.” https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_caindformal/default/table?lang=en
PISA. 2022. “PISA 2022 Results (Volume I), The State of Learning and Equity in Education, Figure I.4.13.” https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2022-results-volume-i_53f23881-en https://stat.link/4q3apj
The website of the Hellenic Open University (EAP) is https://www.eap.gr/en/
Hungary
Preprimary education in Hungary is traditionally very strong, with the country securing the top rank among OECD countries. Kindergarten attendance is compulsory from the age of three. However, the share of male teachers in this segment is extremely low.
In primary education, the socioeconomic background of pupils significantly impacts performance. The COVID-19 pandemic hit Hungary hard, causing already low numbers in 2018 to decline further in 2022, as shown by PISA surveys. The system tends to produce low achievers, and the number of early school leavers is comparatively high. Particular issues include a lack of digital and language skills. About 50% of early leavers aged 18-24 still find employment, which is average compared to other EU countries. The share of young people aged 24-29 who are neither employed nor in vocational training is relatively low. Vocational education and training programs often do not lead to tertiary education, necessitating bridging programs. Hungary provides opportunities to personalize the curriculum to individual needs and offers tools for the professional and social integration of vulnerable young people, but does less to reduce societal stigmatization (S2CENE 2022: 42). Incentives for teachers are provided to guide students to achieve outstanding results in academic competitions, but fewer incentives exist for teachers working with disadvantaged youth, whose efforts are not valued at the same level (S2CENE 2022: 51).
Providing teachers who work with underprivileged students, such as Roma children, with extra pay opportunities and incorporating inclusive education measures into teacher qualification procedures are steps in the right direction. However, efforts to tackle social exclusion, especially among Roma children and young migrants, remain underdeveloped and are somewhat hindered by government ideology. The regulatory framework does not tackle early school leaving with standalone regulation, but addresses the issue within the national strategy, the Public Education Strategy 2021 – 2030 (Köznevelési stratégia 2021 – 2030), adopted in 2020. The ministerial evaluation of the program’s predecessor (2015 – 2020) ecites successs and improving numbers, yet these improvements are not reflected in internationally comparable data. Institutionally, the Educational Authority (Oktatási Hivatal) has established a system for monitoring and controlling teachers’ work. Meanwhile, the Pedagogical Educational Centers (Pedagógiai Oktatási Központok) aim to coordinate, manage and monitor efforts at the local level. Despite some progress, national standards in this field are still underdeveloped, leaving it predominantly to individual schools to develop adequate frameworks. Nevertheless, awareness in this area is growing, as is the number of schools developing relevant schemes. On a macrolevel, schools will face significant challenges in the future due to the ongoing conflict between teachers and the government, which is expected to lead to higher quitting rates among teachers. Moreover, because of suboptimal performance in public schools and labor shortage issues, an increasing number of wealthy parents are opting for private alternatives. This trend exacerbates existing disparities in access to and quality of education (Radó 2018).
In primary education, the socioeconomic background of pupils significantly impacts performance. The COVID-19 pandemic hit Hungary hard, causing already low numbers in 2018 to decline further in 2022, as shown by PISA surveys. The system tends to produce low achievers, and the number of early school leavers is comparatively high. Particular issues include a lack of digital and language skills. About 50% of early leavers aged 18-24 still find employment, which is average compared to other EU countries. The share of young people aged 24-29 who are neither employed nor in vocational training is relatively low. Vocational education and training programs often do not lead to tertiary education, necessitating bridging programs. Hungary provides opportunities to personalize the curriculum to individual needs and offers tools for the professional and social integration of vulnerable young people, but does less to reduce societal stigmatization (S2CENE 2022: 42). Incentives for teachers are provided to guide students to achieve outstanding results in academic competitions, but fewer incentives exist for teachers working with disadvantaged youth, whose efforts are not valued at the same level (S2CENE 2022: 51).
Providing teachers who work with underprivileged students, such as Roma children, with extra pay opportunities and incorporating inclusive education measures into teacher qualification procedures are steps in the right direction. However, efforts to tackle social exclusion, especially among Roma children and young migrants, remain underdeveloped and are somewhat hindered by government ideology. The regulatory framework does not tackle early school leaving with standalone regulation, but addresses the issue within the national strategy, the Public Education Strategy 2021 – 2030 (Köznevelési stratégia 2021 – 2030), adopted in 2020. The ministerial evaluation of the program’s predecessor (2015 – 2020) ecites successs and improving numbers, yet these improvements are not reflected in internationally comparable data. Institutionally, the Educational Authority (Oktatási Hivatal) has established a system for monitoring and controlling teachers’ work. Meanwhile, the Pedagogical Educational Centers (Pedagógiai Oktatási Központok) aim to coordinate, manage and monitor efforts at the local level. Despite some progress, national standards in this field are still underdeveloped, leaving it predominantly to individual schools to develop adequate frameworks. Nevertheless, awareness in this area is growing, as is the number of schools developing relevant schemes. On a macrolevel, schools will face significant challenges in the future due to the ongoing conflict between teachers and the government, which is expected to lead to higher quitting rates among teachers. Moreover, because of suboptimal performance in public schools and labor shortage issues, an increasing number of wealthy parents are opting for private alternatives. This trend exacerbates existing disparities in access to and quality of education (Radó 2018).
Citations:
Radó, P. 2019. “Market Reforms in the Hungarian School System: Impact of Changes in the Ownership Structure.” NESET Ad Hoc Report.
S2CENE. 2022. “Framework for Second Chance Schools in Europe.” Sofia: University of Sofia Press. https://s2cene.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/D.1.2-FRAMEWORK-FOR-SCS-IN-EUROPE-Report.pdf
Radó, P. 2019. “Market Reforms in the Hungarian School System: Impact of Changes in the Ownership Structure.” NESET Ad Hoc Report.
S2CENE. 2022. “Framework for Second Chance Schools in Europe.” Sofia: University of Sofia Press. https://s2cene.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/D.1.2-FRAMEWORK-FOR-SCS-IN-EUROPE-Report.pdf
Switzerland
While women and – with some exceptions – persons from peripheral regions have equal access to higher education, the Swiss education system continues to discriminate at all levels against students from families with low social status. A recent report summarizes the current state of research: “(N)ot all citizens enjoy the same level of participation in education, achievement and qualifications. Despite the expansion of the education system and increasing participation in more advanced levels of education and training (‘educational expansion’), education opportunities depend on factors that have little to do with performance, such as social origin, migration background or gender. This runs counter to the principle of equal opportunity enshrined in the federal constitution and to the generally accepted notion that goods and positions should be allocated on the basis of merit. Measured in terms of learning outcomes, the Swiss education system is therefore not only inefficient but also unfair. Equal opportunity remains a utopia” (Becker and Schoch 2018: 30). This is exacerbated by the fact that children are separated into different education curricula tracks very early on at school (at the age of 12) leading either to high school or to occupation training.
Higher education in Switzerland is also affected by the federal system. Whereas cantons such as Geneva, Basel-City and Ticino have followed international trends favoring general qualifications for university entrance, other cantons – in particular the German-speaking parts of the country – have focused on a split system of university and vocational education. Thus, in the canton of Geneva, around 34% of each age cohort acquires the matura, a high school exit diploma that allows the student to go directly to a university or university of applied sciences. In contrast, in the canton of Uri, only 13% gain direct access to a university or university of applied sciences (2019). In any case, the proportion of individuals obtaining this university-track high school diploma is low in European comparison. The recent report on education finds that not only does the probability of obtaining a university-track high school diploma vary between cantons, the probability of entering a high school (Gymnasium) in the first place does as well. “The cantonal entry rate for high schools varies between 12.8% and 48.6%” (SKBF 2023: 158). However, the effect of this “federal” discrimination is somewhat reduced by permeability within the school and university systems.
Higher education in Switzerland is also affected by the federal system. Whereas cantons such as Geneva, Basel-City and Ticino have followed international trends favoring general qualifications for university entrance, other cantons – in particular the German-speaking parts of the country – have focused on a split system of university and vocational education. Thus, in the canton of Geneva, around 34% of each age cohort acquires the matura, a high school exit diploma that allows the student to go directly to a university or university of applied sciences. In contrast, in the canton of Uri, only 13% gain direct access to a university or university of applied sciences (2019). In any case, the proportion of individuals obtaining this university-track high school diploma is low in European comparison. The recent report on education finds that not only does the probability of obtaining a university-track high school diploma vary between cantons, the probability of entering a high school (Gymnasium) in the first place does as well. “The cantonal entry rate for high schools varies between 12.8% and 48.6%” (SKBF 2023: 158). However, the effect of this “federal” discrimination is somewhat reduced by permeability within the school and university systems.
Citations:
Becker, Rolf, und Jürg Schoch. 2018. Soziale Selektivität. Empfehlungen des Schweizerischen Wissenschaftsrates SWR. Expertenbericht von Rolf Becker und Jürg Schoch im Auftrag des SWR (Politische Analyse 3/2018). Bern: SWR.
SKBF (Schweizerische Koordinationsstelle für Bildungsforschung). 2023. Bildungsbericht Schweiz 2023. Aarau: Schweizerische Koordinationsstelle für Bildungsforschung.
Becker, Rolf, und Jürg Schoch. 2018. Soziale Selektivität. Empfehlungen des Schweizerischen Wissenschaftsrates SWR. Expertenbericht von Rolf Becker und Jürg Schoch im Auftrag des SWR (Politische Analyse 3/2018). Bern: SWR.
SKBF (Schweizerische Koordinationsstelle für Bildungsforschung). 2023. Bildungsbericht Schweiz 2023. Aarau: Schweizerische Koordinationsstelle für Bildungsforschung.
4
Slovakia
Existing policies and regulations ensure equal access to pre-primary education. According to Law 209/2019, which amended the general schooling law (245/2008), all children under five – the last year before entering primary school – must attend kindergarten. Additionally, access to kindergarten from age three is guaranteed based on the amendment of the general schooling law from May 9, 2023 (this right will be implemented step-by-step until 2025). Access to early childhood development facilities (nurseries), however, is not guaranteed.
The education system ensures equitable access to all levels of education, regardless of socioeconomic background. According to the PISA 2022 report (OECD, 2023), Slovakia is significantly below the OECD average for the indicator “socioeconomic fairness.” Students with low social status also have poor results. In April 2023, the European Union initiated investigations at the European Court of Justice into Slovakia for continuing discrimination against Roma children in primary education. According to the EU, Slovakia is the EU member state with the highest rate of segregation of Roma in education, and the existing plans to address this problem are insufficient.
The education system does not provide regular second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low skill levels upon leaving education, except for retraining. There is also a lack of education programs “preparing teachers for a non-mainstream educational process with non-mainstream pupils” (Lukáč and Lukáčová 2024: 34).
The education system ensures equitable access to all levels of education, regardless of socioeconomic background. According to the PISA 2022 report (OECD, 2023), Slovakia is significantly below the OECD average for the indicator “socioeconomic fairness.” Students with low social status also have poor results. In April 2023, the European Union initiated investigations at the European Court of Justice into Slovakia for continuing discrimination against Roma children in primary education. According to the EU, Slovakia is the EU member state with the highest rate of segregation of Roma in education, and the existing plans to address this problem are insufficient.
The education system does not provide regular second-chance education opportunities for individuals with very low skill levels upon leaving education, except for retraining. There is also a lack of education programs “preparing teachers for a non-mainstream educational process with non-mainstream pupils” (Lukáč and Lukáčová 2024: 34).
Citations:
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results The State of Learning and Equity in Education. Paris: OECD.
European Union. 2023. “Press release: The European Commission Decides to Refer Slovakia to the Court of Justice of the European Union for Not Sufficiently Addressing Discrimination Against Roma Children at School.” Brussels: European Union.
Zákon č. 245/2008 o výchove a vzdelávaní. https://www.slov-lex.sk/pravne-predpisy/SK/ZZ/2008/245/
Lukáč, M., and S. Lukáčová. 2024. “Second Chance in Vocational Education and Training of Adults in Slovakia: Second or Wasted Chance?” International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training 11 (1): 33–54. https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.11.1.2
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results The State of Learning and Equity in Education. Paris: OECD.
European Union. 2023. “Press release: The European Commission Decides to Refer Slovakia to the Court of Justice of the European Union for Not Sufficiently Addressing Discrimination Against Roma Children at School.” Brussels: European Union.
Zákon č. 245/2008 o výchove a vzdelávaní. https://www.slov-lex.sk/pravne-predpisy/SK/ZZ/2008/245/
Lukáč, M., and S. Lukáčová. 2024. “Second Chance in Vocational Education and Training of Adults in Slovakia: Second or Wasted Chance?” International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training 11 (1): 33–54. https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.11.1.2
USA
The U.S. education system exhibits high levels of inequality, largely due to its highly fragmented nature in both standard-setting and financing. Generally, poorer localities have fewer resources to allocate to their schools compared to wealthier ones, which only entrenches inequality further.
The federal government makes some efforts to correct these inequities, but they are insufficient. The Head Start program, a product of Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society in the 1960s, provides preschool education to low-income children, as well as family support services and basic nutrition. Child Care and Development Block Grants (CCDBG) are funds the federal government disburses to state governments, which are then expected to develop programs to help fund quality childcare and early years learning, especially for low-income children.
Title I is a federal program that allocates additional resources to schools with high concentrations of children from low-income backgrounds. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA) builds on previous legislation and was designed to provide funding for resources that enable disabled children to integrate into mainstream schools rather than be educated separately. Millions of U.S. children receive educational support through this fund.
Community colleges offer individuals the opportunity to pursue further and higher education at a relatively low cost, thanks to public funding. However, access to these colleges, as well as the generosity and prevalence of their programs, is often tied to state or local funding issues. Many community colleges are also connected to adult education and literacy programs, such as Adult Basic Education (ABE) and English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. The General Educational Development (GED) program enables people who did not obtain their high school diploma to receive an equivalent through study and training.
The federal government makes some efforts to correct these inequities, but they are insufficient. The Head Start program, a product of Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society in the 1960s, provides preschool education to low-income children, as well as family support services and basic nutrition. Child Care and Development Block Grants (CCDBG) are funds the federal government disburses to state governments, which are then expected to develop programs to help fund quality childcare and early years learning, especially for low-income children.
Title I is a federal program that allocates additional resources to schools with high concentrations of children from low-income backgrounds. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA) builds on previous legislation and was designed to provide funding for resources that enable disabled children to integrate into mainstream schools rather than be educated separately. Millions of U.S. children receive educational support through this fund.
Community colleges offer individuals the opportunity to pursue further and higher education at a relatively low cost, thanks to public funding. However, access to these colleges, as well as the generosity and prevalence of their programs, is often tied to state or local funding issues. Many community colleges are also connected to adult education and literacy programs, such as Adult Basic Education (ABE) and English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. The General Educational Development (GED) program enables people who did not obtain their high school diploma to receive an equivalent through study and training.
3
---
---
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
---
---
1
---
---