Diagonal Accountability
#22Key Findings
The UK performs relatively poorly (rank 22) in the area of diagonal accountability.
The government is subject to intense media scrutiny. Broadcasters are required to ensure political balance in their coverage. Though often criticized by politicians, the BBC remains widely regarded as fair. Regulators have withdrawn the licenses of channels from China and Iran, as these were judged to be unbalanced.
While the media remains independent, ownership is concentrated in a relatively small number of groups. The power of Rupert Murdoch’s News International has waned with the growth of online sources. There are few restrictions on membership in civil society organizations, aside from groups deemed to foster political extremism or terrorist-related activities.
Unions and employer organizations have some capacity for generating policy papers and ideas, but their political influence is not great. Financial-sector bodies have significant influence on regulatory policy. Social welfare and environmental groups participate in government working groups, with influence depending on how their positions align with government stances.
The government is subject to intense media scrutiny. Broadcasters are required to ensure political balance in their coverage. Though often criticized by politicians, the BBC remains widely regarded as fair. Regulators have withdrawn the licenses of channels from China and Iran, as these were judged to be unbalanced.
While the media remains independent, ownership is concentrated in a relatively small number of groups. The power of Rupert Murdoch’s News International has waned with the growth of online sources. There are few restrictions on membership in civil society organizations, aside from groups deemed to foster political extremism or terrorist-related activities.
Unions and employer organizations have some capacity for generating policy papers and ideas, but their political influence is not great. Financial-sector bodies have significant influence on regulatory policy. Social welfare and environmental groups participate in government working groups, with influence depending on how their positions align with government stances.
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Graph View
To what extent are the media free from government influence and able to act independently?
10
9
9
There are no disincentives, by law or in practice, for the media to criticize the government and public officials.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing disincentives, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles to the media in criticizing the government and public officials.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing disincentives, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to the media in criticizing the government and public officials.
2
1
1
Existing disincentives, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles to the media in criticizing the government and public officials.
The UK government faces robust media scrutiny from both the press and broadcasters. Broadcasters are formally required to ensure political balance, with OFCOM, an agency tasked with monitoring and investigating complaints, overseeing this obligation. Despite regular criticism from politicians across the political spectrum, the main public broadcaster, the BBC, continues to be regarded as fair and uninhibited in its criticism of the government. In 2023, the BBC updated its social media guidance following complaints from the UK Conservative government about a tweet critical of government immigration policy by one of the BBC’s most famous presenters. Similar debates occur in Scotland regarding media criticism of the SNP-led Scottish government.
The recent establishment of GB News, which takes a distinctly partisan (broadly right-wing) stance, has challenged the assurance of balance in media coverage. This challenge has intensified, especially as GB News has given programs to serving members of Parliament without providing corresponding opposition voices. However, GB News remains far from becoming a UK equivalent of Fox News.
Press freedom faced challenges in the late 2000s following hacking and other scandals, but the government largely resisted calls for restrictions. The print industry is regulated by the Independent Press Standards Organisation, which aims to “hold newspapers and magazines to account for their actions, protect individual rights, uphold high standards of journalism, and help maintain freedom of expression for the press.”
The Online Safety Bill, aimed at regulating harmful content, became law on October 26, 2023, after a long and highly contested passage through Parliament. Media groups, not just those operating online, expressed concerns about whether its provisions would inhibit media freedom.
Citations:
BBC News. 2023. “Gary Lineker: New rules for BBC flagship presenters after social media row,” September 28. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-66940530
The recent establishment of GB News, which takes a distinctly partisan (broadly right-wing) stance, has challenged the assurance of balance in media coverage. This challenge has intensified, especially as GB News has given programs to serving members of Parliament without providing corresponding opposition voices. However, GB News remains far from becoming a UK equivalent of Fox News.
Press freedom faced challenges in the late 2000s following hacking and other scandals, but the government largely resisted calls for restrictions. The print industry is regulated by the Independent Press Standards Organisation, which aims to “hold newspapers and magazines to account for their actions, protect individual rights, uphold high standards of journalism, and help maintain freedom of expression for the press.”
The Online Safety Bill, aimed at regulating harmful content, became law on October 26, 2023, after a long and highly contested passage through Parliament. Media groups, not just those operating online, expressed concerns about whether its provisions would inhibit media freedom.
Citations:
BBC News. 2023. “Gary Lineker: New rules for BBC flagship presenters after social media row,” September 28. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-66940530
To what extent is a plurality of opinions in the media ensured?
10
9
9
There are no barriers, by law or in practice, to a pluralistic media landscape that represents all existing political perspectives in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose no significant obstacles to the media in representing all relevant political perspectives in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to the media in representing all relevant political perspectives in society.
2
1
1
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles to the media in representing all relevant political perspectives in society.
Because of the requirement for broadcasters to be politically balanced, mainstream channels provide a plurality of views, despite the challenges from newcomers such as GB News. The regulator, OFCOM, does rule on complaints and, to give one example in relation to GB News, said “in light of the likely similarity of the views of the participants in this program on the major matter being discussed, the licensee should have taken additional steps to ensure that due impartiality was preserved.” OFCOM has, however, acted decisively to remove the broadcasting licenses of channels such as CGTN (China) or Press TV (Iran) adjudged to have been too unbalanced.
The press is independent, but ownership has been concentrated in a relatively small number of groups, to some extent constraining its plurality (and skewing coverage toward center-right audiences). However, the power of News International – led by Rupert Murdoch – has manifestly waned and the profitability of the press has declined as citizens look to online sources.
The press is independent, but ownership has been concentrated in a relatively small number of groups, to some extent constraining its plurality (and skewing coverage toward center-right audiences). However, the power of News International – led by Rupert Murdoch – has manifestly waned and the profitability of the press has declined as citizens look to online sources.
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To what extent are citizens able to freely form or join independent political and civic groups, openly raise and discuss political issues, and assemble without restrictions?
10
9
9
There are no barriers, by law or in practice to creating an engaged society and civil society organizations that are free to operate.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose very few or no significant obstacles to creating an engaged society and civil society organizations that are free to operate.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose some significant obstacles to the creation of an engaged society and civil society organizations that are free to operate.
2
1
1
Existing barriers, by law and in practice, pose various significant obstacles to the creation of an engaged society and civil society organizations that are free to operate.
In most respects, UK civil society enjoys similar freedoms to its continental European neighbors, with few restrictions on membership in civil society organizations or their ability to function. The main exceptions are groups deemed to foster political extremism or terrorist-related activities. While the UK has an unwritten constitution, the 1998 Human Rights Act conferred rights equivalent to those set out in the European Convention on Human Rights. However, the government and some sections of the Conservative Party periodically criticize the Convention and the Strasbourg Court, with ongoing demands for the UK to withdraw from the court. These demands have resurfaced in connection with the government’s efforts to curb irregular migration by sending migrants to Rwanda, a policy that has yet to result in any migrants being sent.
The government has also been inclined to limit certain rights of assembly, usually citing security or public order concerns. Successive versions of the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act, since 2015, impose various restrictions, such as on the right of entry into the UK and powers of investigation. The right to demonstrate was tested after the October 7, 2023, attacks by Hamas on Israel. Despite calls from some leading politicians to ban demonstrations, the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, citing the Public Order Act, rejected these calls but worked with organizers to agree on conditions provided in the Act.
The UK has an exceptionally high number of CCTV cameras, estimated to be the third highest density after China and the United States, and is more receptive to facial recognition technology than the EU. There appear to be no plans for legislation equivalent to the EU’s 2023 Artificial Intelligence Act. However, the adoption of facial recognition by a property developer elicited a backlash, and the Information Commissioner’s Office provides regulatory protections.
For the most part, citizens are unaffected by these provisions and are not inhibited from demonstrations or other forms of assembly. In fact, there has been criticism of lax policing of protests against climate change by groups like Just Stop Oil and Extinction Rebellion. Authorities are sometimes accused of harsher treatment of certain groups, such as the tough policing by the London Metropolitan Police Service of a vigil for Sarah Everard, a woman murdered by a serving police officer. This incident prompted the Met to commission a review into its “culture and standards of behavior” (Casey 2023). Regarding CCTV, public concerns are mitigated by evidence that cameras help in the fight against crime.
Citations:
https://www.calipsa.io/blog/cctv-statistics-in-the-uk-your-questions-answered
https://news.met.police.uk/news/statement-ahead-of-palestinian-solidarity-campaign-march-in-central-london-474457
Casey, L. 2023. “Baroness Casey Review Final Report: March 2023.” https://www.met.police.uk/police-forces/metropolitan-police/areas/about-us/about-the-met/bcr/baroness-casey-review
The government has also been inclined to limit certain rights of assembly, usually citing security or public order concerns. Successive versions of the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act, since 2015, impose various restrictions, such as on the right of entry into the UK and powers of investigation. The right to demonstrate was tested after the October 7, 2023, attacks by Hamas on Israel. Despite calls from some leading politicians to ban demonstrations, the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, citing the Public Order Act, rejected these calls but worked with organizers to agree on conditions provided in the Act.
The UK has an exceptionally high number of CCTV cameras, estimated to be the third highest density after China and the United States, and is more receptive to facial recognition technology than the EU. There appear to be no plans for legislation equivalent to the EU’s 2023 Artificial Intelligence Act. However, the adoption of facial recognition by a property developer elicited a backlash, and the Information Commissioner’s Office provides regulatory protections.
For the most part, citizens are unaffected by these provisions and are not inhibited from demonstrations or other forms of assembly. In fact, there has been criticism of lax policing of protests against climate change by groups like Just Stop Oil and Extinction Rebellion. Authorities are sometimes accused of harsher treatment of certain groups, such as the tough policing by the London Metropolitan Police Service of a vigil for Sarah Everard, a woman murdered by a serving police officer. This incident prompted the Met to commission a review into its “culture and standards of behavior” (Casey 2023). Regarding CCTV, public concerns are mitigated by evidence that cameras help in the fight against crime.
Citations:
https://www.calipsa.io/blog/cctv-statistics-in-the-uk-your-questions-answered
https://news.met.police.uk/news/statement-ahead-of-palestinian-solidarity-campaign-march-in-central-london-474457
Casey, L. 2023. “Baroness Casey Review Final Report: March 2023.” https://www.met.police.uk/police-forces/metropolitan-police/areas/about-us/about-the-met/bcr/baroness-casey-review
To what extent do civil society organizations (CSOs) have the capacity to actively participate in the co-creation of relevant policies?
10
9
9
All the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
5
4
3
4
3
Few of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
2
1
1
None of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
Falling trade union membership and its concentration in areas of public services are key characteristics of labor-related CSOs, while employer representation is split between different organizations. Neither side has a formal role in the policy formulation process, so their capacity to participate in the creation of policy is through pressure politics, as indicated in the question description. Institutions of corporatism had been introduced in the 1960s but were largely abandoned during Margaret Thatcher’s time as prime minister (from 1979) and were not revived by her successors. From 1999, devolved Scottish and Welsh governments signaled a greater willingness to consult or work closely with unions, professional groups, and third sector representatives (Greer and Jarman 2008).
Although unions and employer organizations have some capacity for generating policy papers and ideas, their influence is not great, nor do they attract active support from a significant share of the population. However, in financial services, bodies such as UK Finance can exert considerable influence on changes in financial regulation and related aspects of policy formulation, based on having relevant expertise.
Beyond the term “social partners” (a phrase not commonly used in UK politics) implied in the expression “major CSOs,” there exists a diverse array of other organizations – think tanks, lobby groups, and NGOs focused on specific policy areas. These organizations have substantial capacities for influencing UK government policy formulation, though there is less think tank capacity around devolved governments. Their influence varies depending on the government in power.
For example, newer organizations like the Resolution Foundation have been able to connect with the current government, while the Institute of Economic Affairs was closely aligned with the short-lived Liz Truss government in 2022. Previously, the Institute for Public Policy Research contributed to New Labour’s policy development. The Tony Blair Institute is another well-resourced entity that generates policy ideas likely to influence the government following the general election expected within the next year.
Citations:
Greer, S. and Jarman, H. 2008. “Devolution and Policy Styles.” In Trench, A., eds.
Exeter. 2008. The State of the Nations 2008. Exeter: Imprint Academic.
Although unions and employer organizations have some capacity for generating policy papers and ideas, their influence is not great, nor do they attract active support from a significant share of the population. However, in financial services, bodies such as UK Finance can exert considerable influence on changes in financial regulation and related aspects of policy formulation, based on having relevant expertise.
Beyond the term “social partners” (a phrase not commonly used in UK politics) implied in the expression “major CSOs,” there exists a diverse array of other organizations – think tanks, lobby groups, and NGOs focused on specific policy areas. These organizations have substantial capacities for influencing UK government policy formulation, though there is less think tank capacity around devolved governments. Their influence varies depending on the government in power.
For example, newer organizations like the Resolution Foundation have been able to connect with the current government, while the Institute of Economic Affairs was closely aligned with the short-lived Liz Truss government in 2022. Previously, the Institute for Public Policy Research contributed to New Labour’s policy development. The Tony Blair Institute is another well-resourced entity that generates policy ideas likely to influence the government following the general election expected within the next year.
Citations:
Greer, S. and Jarman, H. 2008. “Devolution and Policy Styles.” In Trench, A., eds.
Exeter. 2008. The State of the Nations 2008. Exeter: Imprint Academic.
To what extent do civil society organizations (CSOs) have the capacity to actively participate in the co-creation of relevant policies?
10
9
9
All the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
5
4
3
4
3
Few of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
2
1
1
None of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
The UK has an abundance of NGOs and other entities that contribute to routine policy development, particularly in social welfare. These organizations engage in various activities such as responding to government consultations, participating in government working groups, and influencing through publications, events, and informal contacts with decision-makers. Their strategy and influence depend on the alignment of their positions with those of the UK government, ranging from visible pressure politics on contentious issues to informal discussions on shared agendas. Many of these bodies have charitable status, which confers fiscal advantages.
Examples of entities with capacities relevant to social welfare, all aiming to influence government, include:
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation: Employing 150 staff, this foundation focuses on a range of social welfare topics such as poverty, social security, housing, and issues around race and ethnicity. Funded by shares donated by Quaker businessman and social reformer Joseph Rowntree, the foundation aims to influence public debate by engaging with and applying pressure on those in power through the quality of their arguments and ideas, and by building powerful coalitions and movements for change, centering on the voices of those who benefit least from the status quo.
The National Centre for Social Research: Conducts surveys and works with governments, NGOs, charities, and other organizations to drive understanding and help them make sound decisions that shape society.
Social Market Foundation: A nonpartisan think tank conducting research on various aspects of public policy, including economics and market regulation, work, skills and education, and public sector reform.
The Centre for Social Justice: Founded by former Conservative Party leader Iain Duncan Smith, this organization seeks to influence government policies and laws to address the root causes of poverty, which include family breakdown, educational failure, worklessness, addiction, problem debt and housing, criminal justice, and modern slavery. The CSJ published the interim report of a commission on social justice, which opens with the line: “The country is deeply divided. There are those who are getting by and there are those who are not.”
Citations:
https://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/CSJ-Two_Nations.pdf
Examples of entities with capacities relevant to social welfare, all aiming to influence government, include:
The Joseph Rowntree Foundation: Employing 150 staff, this foundation focuses on a range of social welfare topics such as poverty, social security, housing, and issues around race and ethnicity. Funded by shares donated by Quaker businessman and social reformer Joseph Rowntree, the foundation aims to influence public debate by engaging with and applying pressure on those in power through the quality of their arguments and ideas, and by building powerful coalitions and movements for change, centering on the voices of those who benefit least from the status quo.
The National Centre for Social Research: Conducts surveys and works with governments, NGOs, charities, and other organizations to drive understanding and help them make sound decisions that shape society.
Social Market Foundation: A nonpartisan think tank conducting research on various aspects of public policy, including economics and market regulation, work, skills and education, and public sector reform.
The Centre for Social Justice: Founded by former Conservative Party leader Iain Duncan Smith, this organization seeks to influence government policies and laws to address the root causes of poverty, which include family breakdown, educational failure, worklessness, addiction, problem debt and housing, criminal justice, and modern slavery. The CSJ published the interim report of a commission on social justice, which opens with the line: “The country is deeply divided. There are those who are getting by and there are those who are not.”
Citations:
https://www.centreforsocialjustice.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/CSJ-Two_Nations.pdf
To what extent do civil society organizations (CSOs) have the capacity to actively participate in the co-creation of relevant policies?
10
9
9
All the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
8
7
6
7
6
Most of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
5
4
3
4
3
Few of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
2
1
1
None of the major CSOs active in the field have the capacity to shape public policies.
The UK has an abundance of NGOs and other entities that contribute to policy development in environmental matters. The term “major CSOs” does not fully capture how these capacities are exercised in the UK. These organizations often have charitable status and access to government through various channels. Examples of prominent entities include (though this list is not exhaustive):
The Green Alliance: This organization covers a range of environmental research and acts as the secretariat for the All-Party Parliamentary Group for the Environment. It embraces technical research as well as the study of political leadership.
E3G: Highly ranked in the University of Pennsylvania ratings of think tanks, E3G is judged to be foremost in the UK and second in Europe. Its focus is on climate change, and it claims to “work closely with like-minded partners in government, politics, civil society, science, the media, public interest foundations, and elsewhere.”
University Research Groups: These include the Grantham Institute at LSE, the Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet at Imperial College London, and the Conservation Research Institute at the University of Cambridge.
While many relevant groups support the UK government’s “net zero” commitments, significant doubts remain about how well the broad strategy translates into concrete measures (Sasse et al. 2022).
Citations:
Sasse, T., Rutter, J., Shepheard, M., and Norris, E. 2020. Net Zero: How Government Can Meet Its Climate Change Target. London: Institute for Government. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publications/net-zero
The Green Alliance: This organization covers a range of environmental research and acts as the secretariat for the All-Party Parliamentary Group for the Environment. It embraces technical research as well as the study of political leadership.
E3G: Highly ranked in the University of Pennsylvania ratings of think tanks, E3G is judged to be foremost in the UK and second in Europe. Its focus is on climate change, and it claims to “work closely with like-minded partners in government, politics, civil society, science, the media, public interest foundations, and elsewhere.”
University Research Groups: These include the Grantham Institute at LSE, the Georgina Mace Centre for the Living Planet at Imperial College London, and the Conservation Research Institute at the University of Cambridge.
While many relevant groups support the UK government’s “net zero” commitments, significant doubts remain about how well the broad strategy translates into concrete measures (Sasse et al. 2022).
Citations:
Sasse, T., Rutter, J., Shepheard, M., and Norris, E. 2020. Net Zero: How Government Can Meet Its Climate Change Target. London: Institute for Government. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/publications/net-zero