United Kingdom

The UK falls into the middle ranks internationally (rank 16) in the category of vertical accountability.

Political competition is lively, with many fringe candidates often appearing on ballots. Restrictions on running for Parliament are limited, excluding only certain public officials. Identity checks in conjunction with voting have caused some difficulties for certain groups, such as people with disabilities. Elections are overall free and fair.

The “first-past-the-post” system nearly always produces a majority for either the Conservatives or Labour. Smaller parties have little influence unless there is no clear majority. In contrast, the devolved governments in Scotland and Wales use mixed-member proportional systems, which allow smaller parties more representation and increase the likelihood of coalition governments.

Aggregation of preferences generally happens within parties rather than through cross-party cooperation. The opposition, for the most part, seeks to oppose. The government data portal offers large amounts of public information, but authorities can be slow to respond to freedom of information requests.

The UK performs relatively poorly (rank 22) in the area of diagonal accountability.

The government is subject to intense media scrutiny. Broadcasters are required to ensure political balance in their coverage. Though often criticized by politicians, the BBC remains widely regarded as fair. Regulators have withdrawn the licenses of channels from China and Iran, as these were judged to be unbalanced.

While the media remains independent, ownership is concentrated in a relatively small number of groups. The power of Rupert Murdoch’s News International has waned with the growth of online sources. There are few restrictions on membership in civil society organizations, aside from groups deemed to foster political extremism or terrorist-related activities.

Unions and employer organizations have some capacity for generating policy papers and ideas, but their political influence is not great. Financial-sector bodies have significant influence on regulatory policy. Social welfare and environmental groups participate in government working groups, with influence depending on how their positions align with government stances.

In the category of horizontal accountability, the UK falls into the sample’s upper-middle ranks (rank 9).

The independent National Audit Office evaluates government spending and offers guides on good practices. The Information Commissioner’s Office upholds information rights, ensuring data protection laws are followed.

The UK judiciary is independent, and has the power to halt government actions. The Supreme Court addresses constitutional issues, including those between the UK and devolved parliaments. While the UK lacks a written constitution, civil rights are protected by the Human Rights Act of 1998 and adherence to the European Convention on Human Rights. Anti-terrorism laws have imposed some civil liberties restrictions on some populations.

Explicit corruption is rare in the UK, particularly at the national level, though minor instances can occur locally. Parliamentarians have fewer resources than counterparts in some legislatures elsewhere, but have sufficient powers to monitor the executive and help shape policy.

The UK performs comparatively poorly (rank 22) in the category of coordination.

The Prime Minister’s Office is relatively limited in its scope. Instead, the Cabinet Office plays the key role in coordinating policy, supported by the Treasury. The prime minister can set priorities, but overall policy coordination remains outside of their direct control. The inquiry into pandemic governance revealed considerable incoherence within the central government.

Flexibility and informal meetings are key features of UK governance. Cabinet committees provide opportunities to seek interministerial agreement. Because single-party governments are typical, informal cross-party meetings are not common.

The UK has two main types of delegation: from the central government to devolved administrations of Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and from these devolved governments to local authorities. The devolved governments, particularly in Wales and Scotland, cooperate with local authorities on public services like education.

In the category of consensus-building, the UK falls into the sample’s upper-middle ranks (rank 10).

Particularly during the pandemic, the government has relied heavily on the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies, which primarily consists of biomedical experts. The government chief scientific adviser also works with departmental scientific advisers and the broader scientific community to provide expert guidance.

Unions and employer organizations such as the Trade Union Congress and Confederation of British Industry do not play a large direct role in shaping public policies. A variety of NGOs, think tanks and research institutes influence social welfare and environmental policymaking, often through informal channels.

The UK is a leading advocate for open government, with a strong focus on transparency and public access to data. The government publishes a wide range of documents and datasets through its data portal. Information on senior public servants’ salaries, workforce data and ministerial meetings is regularly made available to the public.

The UK performs well in international comparison (rank 6) in the category of sensemaking.

Foresight efforts are led by the Government Office for Science. A separate innovation agency offers a strategic foresight function called the Discovery Hub. Connecting these foresight activities to regular government decision-making can be a challenge.

Regulatory impact assessments (RIAs) typically accompany government interventions affecting the private sector, civil society or public services, assessing benefits and burdens. The threshold for conducting a full RIA starts with effects of £5 million. Researchers have questioned the value of these assessments, arguing that they are not systematically integrated into decision-making.

RIAs consider a wide range of indicators, including social, environmental and ecological factors, though economic indicators are often prioritized. While ex post assessments are seen as a vital part of policymaking, definitions of success and failure are frequently politicized.

The UK performs well in international comparison (rank 8) in the category of economic sustainability.

The state has committed to following EU circular economy principles, but implementation challenges are proving tricky. The National Protective Security Authority and National Cyber Security Centre oversee critical infrastructure. The government has targeted net-zero emissions by 2050, but recent policy changes have slowed progress.

The country’s labor market is flexible, with high employment rates. Economic inactivity has increased since the pandemic. Employers report skills gaps. Anti-discrimination are robust, and the government’s “leveling up” agenda has sought to address regional inequalities. Active labor market policies help job seekers find work.

Progressive income taxes make up the largest revenue source, followed by national insurance and VAT. Fuel, tobacco, and alcohol duties aim to internalize negative externalities. Fiscal rules are intended to curb overspending, but have been frequently modified. Debt levels are high, at around 100% of GDP. R&D policies are strong overall.

The UK falls into the upper-middle group internationally (rank 9) in the category of social sustainability.

Education is managed separately by England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England’s PISA scores have risen after reforms, while Scotland has faced criticism for declining standards. UK universities remain globally esteemed.

Health is also a devolved responsibility, with resources funded by central-government block grants, and care provided free at the point of delivery to all. Despite an increase in system resources, health outcomes are a concern, and waiting lists are very long. Safety net polices are available to all, but specifics vary between the four nations.

Policies aimed at increasing women’s labor-market participation include the expansion of childcare facilities, extensions of maternity leave and the introduction of paternity leave. Childcare costs are high. The pension system is fiscally sustainable. Immigration has been a tense issue for years, although regular migrants are often well integrated into the labor force.

The UK falls into the top ranks internationally (rank 3) in the area of environmental sustainability.

The 2008 Climate Change Act set binding targets for achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Recent government policy decisions have pushed back some interim targets. However, the country’s overall record in moving toward the net-zero goal is very good.

Environmental health is a competence of the devolved administrations, with support from UK-wide agencies. Criticisms of insufficient enforcement are widespread, especially in the area of sewage discharges by water companies.

The 2021 Environment Act imposes a duty on all public authorities to tailor policies to conserve and enhance biodiversity. The country has long been a strong advocate for global environmental sustainability, and provides considerable funding for the global transition to renewables and clean energy.