Social Sustainability
#9Key Findings
The UK falls into the upper-middle group internationally (rank 9) in the category of social sustainability.
Education is managed separately by England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England’s PISA scores have risen after reforms, while Scotland has faced criticism for declining standards. UK universities remain globally esteemed.
Health is also a devolved responsibility, with resources funded by central-government block grants, and care provided free at the point of delivery to all. Despite an increase in system resources, health outcomes are a concern, and waiting lists are very long. Safety net polices are available to all, but specifics vary between the four nations.
Policies aimed at increasing women’s labor-market participation include the expansion of childcare facilities, extensions of maternity leave and the introduction of paternity leave. Childcare costs are high. The pension system is fiscally sustainable. Immigration has been a tense issue for years, although regular migrants are often well integrated into the labor force.
Education is managed separately by England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England’s PISA scores have risen after reforms, while Scotland has faced criticism for declining standards. UK universities remain globally esteemed.
Health is also a devolved responsibility, with resources funded by central-government block grants, and care provided free at the point of delivery to all. Despite an increase in system resources, health outcomes are a concern, and waiting lists are very long. Safety net polices are available to all, but specifics vary between the four nations.
Policies aimed at increasing women’s labor-market participation include the expansion of childcare facilities, extensions of maternity leave and the introduction of paternity leave. Childcare costs are high. The pension system is fiscally sustainable. Immigration has been a tense issue for years, although regular migrants are often well integrated into the labor force.
To what extent do policies and regulations in the education system hinder or facilitate high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring high-quality education and training.
Education is a devolved competence in the United Kingdom, meaning it is the responsibility of the individual nations – England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. This decentralization long predates the recent devolution of power that established the devolved national administrations. For example, Scotland has always had its own school curriculum, exam system, and undergraduate university degree structure, which differ significantly from those in England. Additionally, Scotland and Wales have a higher proportion of comprehensive (nonselective) schools. Consequently, it makes little sense to talk in terms of UK education policy and performance. The Department for Education (DfE) in the UK government oversees education in England, which encompasses 84% of the UK population. In Scotland, Education Scotland, a delegated agency of the Scottish government, is responsible for delivering education. Northern Ireland has a similar agency, though local authorities play a primary role in implementation.
Although there is private provision (confusingly known as public schools), it covers only 7% of pupils. The education system in England underwent numerous reforms in the 2010s, resulting in improvements in PISA scores. In contrast, Scotland’s education system, traditionally a source of pride compared to England, has seen a decline, leading to political criticism of the Scottish National Party government.
In England, there is a statutory limit on class sizes of 30, and the latest data (for 2023) show actual class sizes have been stable at 26.7, with a slight increase in total enrollment in the last year. Nearly a quarter of pupils were eligible for free school meals, a means-tested benefit. The latest report on education in England from the Institute for Fiscal Studies observes that spending has “fallen as a share of national income, from about 5.6% of national income in 2010–11 down to about 4.4% in 2022–23. This is about the same share of national income as in the early 2000s, mid-1980s, and late 1960s. There has been no long-run increase in the share of national income devoted to public spending on education, despite large rises in education participation over the long run.” The start of the 2023–24 school year highlighted under-investment in schools, particularly with the failure to address buildings using reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete (RAAC). This led to closures and the use of temporary facilities, raising concerns about the impact on pupils’ prospects.
Significant changes have been made to boost early years education in England, with a commitment that from September 2025, families will be entitled to funding for 30 hours per week for children aged nine months or older. Devolved governments maintain similar or higher commitments. However, further education has seen mixed results. Funding was cut during the 2010s, but increased spending became a priority for the Sunak government, partly in response to concerns that too many students were pursuing university courses with limited labor market relevance and a high dropout rate. The renewed rise in NEETs (people aged 15–24 neither in education nor employment or training) is also worrying.
Shortcomings in adult education are being addressed, with varying approaches among the UK nations. A warning was issued by AONTAS, the National Adult Learning Organisation, about a persistent decline in adult education. In response to the independent Augar review conducted in 2018, England introduced the Lifelong Learning Entitlement, aiming to create “a single funding system to help people pay for college or university courses, and train, retrain, and upskill flexibly over their working lives.” It is due to become operational in 2025. Scotland launched an Adult Learning Strategy for 2022–27 to ensure accessible lifelong learning opportunities. Wales passed the Tertiary Education and Research (Wales) Act, establishing the Commission for Tertiary Education and Research, a new Welsh government-sponsored body due to become operational in April 2024 that has a mandate to integrate tertiary education and lifelong learning functions.
A December 2023 policy paper for England, “Sustainability and Climate Change: A Strategy for the Education and Children’s Services Systems,” focuses on maintaining education standards and resilience while respecting sustainability objectives. It aims to provide students with “opportunities to develop a broad knowledge and understanding of the importance of nature, sustainability, and the causes and impact of climate change, and to translate this knowledge into positive action and solutions.”
UK universities continue to be highly regarded, with prestigious institutions like Cambridge, Oxford, and Imperial College London featuring in top global rankings. However, there are concerns about the financial stability of less well-regarded universities, partly because tuition fees have been capped for a decade, resulting in real-term cuts. University tuition remains free in Scotland, though not for students from other parts of the UK. UK universities can charge higher fees to foreign students, incentivizing them to prefer international over domestic students.
Citations:
https://ifs.org.uk/publications/annual-report-education-spending-england-2023
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-67781489
Although there is private provision (confusingly known as public schools), it covers only 7% of pupils. The education system in England underwent numerous reforms in the 2010s, resulting in improvements in PISA scores. In contrast, Scotland’s education system, traditionally a source of pride compared to England, has seen a decline, leading to political criticism of the Scottish National Party government.
In England, there is a statutory limit on class sizes of 30, and the latest data (for 2023) show actual class sizes have been stable at 26.7, with a slight increase in total enrollment in the last year. Nearly a quarter of pupils were eligible for free school meals, a means-tested benefit. The latest report on education in England from the Institute for Fiscal Studies observes that spending has “fallen as a share of national income, from about 5.6% of national income in 2010–11 down to about 4.4% in 2022–23. This is about the same share of national income as in the early 2000s, mid-1980s, and late 1960s. There has been no long-run increase in the share of national income devoted to public spending on education, despite large rises in education participation over the long run.” The start of the 2023–24 school year highlighted under-investment in schools, particularly with the failure to address buildings using reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete (RAAC). This led to closures and the use of temporary facilities, raising concerns about the impact on pupils’ prospects.
Significant changes have been made to boost early years education in England, with a commitment that from September 2025, families will be entitled to funding for 30 hours per week for children aged nine months or older. Devolved governments maintain similar or higher commitments. However, further education has seen mixed results. Funding was cut during the 2010s, but increased spending became a priority for the Sunak government, partly in response to concerns that too many students were pursuing university courses with limited labor market relevance and a high dropout rate. The renewed rise in NEETs (people aged 15–24 neither in education nor employment or training) is also worrying.
Shortcomings in adult education are being addressed, with varying approaches among the UK nations. A warning was issued by AONTAS, the National Adult Learning Organisation, about a persistent decline in adult education. In response to the independent Augar review conducted in 2018, England introduced the Lifelong Learning Entitlement, aiming to create “a single funding system to help people pay for college or university courses, and train, retrain, and upskill flexibly over their working lives.” It is due to become operational in 2025. Scotland launched an Adult Learning Strategy for 2022–27 to ensure accessible lifelong learning opportunities. Wales passed the Tertiary Education and Research (Wales) Act, establishing the Commission for Tertiary Education and Research, a new Welsh government-sponsored body due to become operational in April 2024 that has a mandate to integrate tertiary education and lifelong learning functions.
A December 2023 policy paper for England, “Sustainability and Climate Change: A Strategy for the Education and Children’s Services Systems,” focuses on maintaining education standards and resilience while respecting sustainability objectives. It aims to provide students with “opportunities to develop a broad knowledge and understanding of the importance of nature, sustainability, and the causes and impact of climate change, and to translate this knowledge into positive action and solutions.”
UK universities continue to be highly regarded, with prestigious institutions like Cambridge, Oxford, and Imperial College London featuring in top global rankings. However, there are concerns about the financial stability of less well-regarded universities, partly because tuition fees have been capped for a decade, resulting in real-term cuts. University tuition remains free in Scotland, though not for students from other parts of the UK. UK universities can charge higher fees to foreign students, incentivizing them to prefer international over domestic students.
Citations:
https://ifs.org.uk/publications/annual-report-education-spending-england-2023
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-67781489
To what extent does the current policy approach in the education system hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality education and training?
10
9
9
Education policies are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
8
7
6
7
6
Education policies are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
5
4
3
4
3
Education policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
2
1
1
Education policies are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equitable access to high-quality education and training.
All education providers across the UK are subject to inspections and a regulatory framework designed to assure quality. In England, OFSTED is responsible for inspecting schools; in Wales, it is Estyn; in Scotland, Education Scotland; and in Northern Ireland, the Education and Training Inspectorate. These inspections evaluate school quality and can impose stringent recommendations and gradings, aiming to provide parents with informed choices about where to send their children. However, following the suicide of a headteacher who received an “inadequate” rating – and a coroner’s verdict blaming the inspection outcome – OFSTED announced in December 2023 that it was suspending inspections to rethink its approach.
Despite these inspection regimes, geographical differences in school quality persist, often affecting local house prices. High-quality schools can be found in both affluent and deprived areas. Enhancing educational opportunities is part of the government’s “leveling-up” agenda, although equal access does not necessarily lead to equal outcomes. School exam crises in 2020 highlighted systemic inequalities in educational outcomes. The UK and devolved governments, in coordination with qualifications agencies, approved the use of an algorithm to modify teacher-assessed grades, which initially resulted in downgrading scores in deprived areas. Attempts to avoid similar public outcry in 2021 were successful, but the underlying inequalities remain (Kippin and Cairney 2023).
Entry to the best universities is competitive, and there has long been a bias favoring privately educated pupils at institutions like Cambridge and Oxford, as well as top universities in Scotland. Private pupils often benefit from greater familiarity with entry requirements, the quality of their schools, and family connections. However, in recent years, Oxbridge has made significant efforts to attract students from poorer backgrounds, reducing the proportion of private entrants, although they remain overrepresented. High fees and the terms of student loans are also mentioned as potential deterrents to university applicants from poorer backgrounds, although the steady increase in enrollments suggests otherwise.
Support for “second-chance” educational opportunities has faced funding cuts since 2010 and erratic policy changes, as highlighted in an FE Week article celebrating the 60th anniversary of the National Extension College, a key provider. While new initiatives in further education (see “Policies Targeting Quality Education”) may improve the situation, the offer has clearly been inadequate, and the recent rise in NEETs is a disappointment.
Citations:
https://feweek.co.uk/national-extension-college-sixty-years-of-second-chance-learning/
Sean Kippin and Paul Cairney. 2023. “COVID-19 and the Second Exams Fiasco Across the UK: Four Nations Trying to Avoid Immediate Policy Failure.” British Politics 18 (1): 151-72. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41293-022-00202-1
Despite these inspection regimes, geographical differences in school quality persist, often affecting local house prices. High-quality schools can be found in both affluent and deprived areas. Enhancing educational opportunities is part of the government’s “leveling-up” agenda, although equal access does not necessarily lead to equal outcomes. School exam crises in 2020 highlighted systemic inequalities in educational outcomes. The UK and devolved governments, in coordination with qualifications agencies, approved the use of an algorithm to modify teacher-assessed grades, which initially resulted in downgrading scores in deprived areas. Attempts to avoid similar public outcry in 2021 were successful, but the underlying inequalities remain (Kippin and Cairney 2023).
Entry to the best universities is competitive, and there has long been a bias favoring privately educated pupils at institutions like Cambridge and Oxford, as well as top universities in Scotland. Private pupils often benefit from greater familiarity with entry requirements, the quality of their schools, and family connections. However, in recent years, Oxbridge has made significant efforts to attract students from poorer backgrounds, reducing the proportion of private entrants, although they remain overrepresented. High fees and the terms of student loans are also mentioned as potential deterrents to university applicants from poorer backgrounds, although the steady increase in enrollments suggests otherwise.
Support for “second-chance” educational opportunities has faced funding cuts since 2010 and erratic policy changes, as highlighted in an FE Week article celebrating the 60th anniversary of the National Extension College, a key provider. While new initiatives in further education (see “Policies Targeting Quality Education”) may improve the situation, the offer has clearly been inadequate, and the recent rise in NEETs is a disappointment.
Citations:
https://feweek.co.uk/national-extension-college-sixty-years-of-second-chance-learning/
Sean Kippin and Paul Cairney. 2023. “COVID-19 and the Second Exams Fiasco Across the UK: Four Nations Trying to Avoid Immediate Policy Failure.” British Politics 18 (1): 151-72. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41293-022-00202-1
To what extent do existing institutions ensure equal access to essential services and basic income support for those in need?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of ensuring equal access for those in need.
There is a safety net available to all citizens in the UK, although the specifics vary among the four nations. Organizations like Citizens Advice provide guidance to those in need on what they can claim. The main benefit is Universal Credit (UC), which is replacing several other benefits, including housing benefit and child benefit, although the transition from legacy benefits is still incomplete. UC provides a monthly payment (which can be twice a month in Scotland and Northern Ireland) from which recipients are responsible for paying for services and rent, if applicable. There is an option for rent to be paid directly to a landlord if the recipient has debt problems or struggles to manage household finances. UC is available to low earners, including the self-employed. Irregular migrants, however, are not eligible for UC, although they receive accommodation and subsistence payments.
Gas prices are subject to a cap, which was raised to a high level in 2022. The surge in energy prices that year led the government to introduce temporary financial support paid automatically to most households, with additional targeted payments for those on benefits, who are entitled to up to three payments in 2023-24. In 2023, media investigations exposed the practice by some energy suppliers of forced entry into properties by bailiffs to install pre-payment meters for consumers in arrears. These meters result in higher charges for already deprived households. After a public outcry, the regulator (OFGEM) requested companies to suspend the practice; they complied, but it has not been banned.
There has been discussion about introducing a basic income available to everyone, despite concerns over the high potential cost. In July 2022, the Welsh government launched an experimental scheme offering about 500 18-year-olds £19,200 a year before tax, with no strings attached. A similar scheme was launched in England in 2023 on a much smaller scale, with 30 participants receiving £1,600 a month for two years to study the impact of the money on their lives. The Scottish government also experimented with limited UBI schemes starting in 2017.
Citations:
https://www.basicincome.scot/whats-happening-in-scotland
Gas prices are subject to a cap, which was raised to a high level in 2022. The surge in energy prices that year led the government to introduce temporary financial support paid automatically to most households, with additional targeted payments for those on benefits, who are entitled to up to three payments in 2023-24. In 2023, media investigations exposed the practice by some energy suppliers of forced entry into properties by bailiffs to install pre-payment meters for consumers in arrears. These meters result in higher charges for already deprived households. After a public outcry, the regulator (OFGEM) requested companies to suspend the practice; they complied, but it has not been banned.
There has been discussion about introducing a basic income available to everyone, despite concerns over the high potential cost. In July 2022, the Welsh government launched an experimental scheme offering about 500 18-year-olds £19,200 a year before tax, with no strings attached. A similar scheme was launched in England in 2023 on a much smaller scale, with 30 participants receiving £1,600 a month for two years to study the impact of the money on their lives. The Scottish government also experimented with limited UBI schemes starting in 2017.
Citations:
https://www.basicincome.scot/whats-happening-in-scotland
To what extent do existing institutions and policies ensure high-quality services and basic income support?
10
9
9
Existing essential public services and basic income support are fully aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
8
7
6
7
6
Existing essential public services and basic income support are largely aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
5
4
3
4
3
Existing essential public services and basic income support are only somewhat aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
2
1
1
Existing essential public services and basic income support are not at all aligned with the goal of satisfying basic human needs.
While provisions for basic services are available to all and generally sufficient to meet basic human needs, the shortage of social housing – part of a broader housing deficit – is particularly striking. Shelter, an NGO advocating for more and better housing, estimates that more than one million households in England are on waiting lists for social housing. This lack of supply forces many into substandard rented housing. An investigation by ITV, one of the main terrestrial TV channels, exposed the desperate conditions some households have to endure. In Scotland, the waiting list is estimated at 110,000 households, with 37% waiting for over three years, according to a Household Survey published in April 2023.
Every home and business in the UK has the legal right to request a decent, affordable broadband connection, an obligation enforced by the regulator OFCOM. A 2021 inquiry into BT for unreasonable charges was suspended when the company provided assurances, reaffirming this principle. In some rural areas, service is poorer due to geography rather than deprivation.
Strict conditions apply to the withdrawal of energy and water services, requiring a court order and only after attempts have been made to agree on a payment plan. Most suppliers are part of the Energy UK Vulnerability Commitment, which precludes disconnection for households with children under 16 during the winter and all year for households with certain other vulnerabilities.
The nine largest providers of personal bank accounts are legally required to offer basic bank accounts that are fee-free for standard operations. Basic bank account customers can use the same services (e.g., ATM and Post Office counter access) as the financial institution’s other PCA customers.
While rail and bus services are heavily subsidized, the beneficiaries tend to be better off, and ticket costs deter the worst off. A polemical 2021 posting by Greenpeace is critical of the inequalities resulting from transport policies, particularly affecting the poor, the disabled, and ethnic minorities, and highlights the implications of car dependence for sustainability.
Citations:
https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/news/uk-transport-unfair-car-dependence-social-justice/
Every home and business in the UK has the legal right to request a decent, affordable broadband connection, an obligation enforced by the regulator OFCOM. A 2021 inquiry into BT for unreasonable charges was suspended when the company provided assurances, reaffirming this principle. In some rural areas, service is poorer due to geography rather than deprivation.
Strict conditions apply to the withdrawal of energy and water services, requiring a court order and only after attempts have been made to agree on a payment plan. Most suppliers are part of the Energy UK Vulnerability Commitment, which precludes disconnection for households with children under 16 during the winter and all year for households with certain other vulnerabilities.
The nine largest providers of personal bank accounts are legally required to offer basic bank accounts that are fee-free for standard operations. Basic bank account customers can use the same services (e.g., ATM and Post Office counter access) as the financial institution’s other PCA customers.
While rail and bus services are heavily subsidized, the beneficiaries tend to be better off, and ticket costs deter the worst off. A polemical 2021 posting by Greenpeace is critical of the inequalities resulting from transport policies, particularly affecting the poor, the disabled, and ethnic minorities, and highlights the implications of car dependence for sustainability.
Citations:
https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/news/uk-transport-unfair-car-dependence-social-justice/
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate health system resilience?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving a resilient health system.
Health is a competence of the devolved administrations in the UK, for whom it represents the largest spending area. Public health agencies operate in all four nations of the UK. According to a study by the Tony Blair Institute, the UK “has become one of the unhealthiest populations in the OECD,” an outcome the study attributes primarily to “the country’s failure to manage demand,” that is, to prevent rather than treat ill-health. A striking statistic from the report indicates that in the fiscal year 2021-22, £3.3 billion was spent on public health grants, barely 1.5% of the £229 billion total health expenditure. Obesity, smoking, and mental health are cited as underlying causes, and the aftermath of the pandemic has aggravated an already poor record. Mental health has been highlighted as needing greater public support, despite promises to spend more on it in the Mental Health Recovery Action Plan announced for England in 2021. Dentistry is also problematic, with the availability of NHS surgeries collapsing and many patients struggling to obtain, let alone pay for, private care.
In Scotland, a discussion paper launched in January 2023 acknowledged that too little was being invested in health protection. The paper identifies two overarching challenges: low and falling life expectancy and widening health inequalities. There has also been regular media coverage of the very high rate of drug abuse deaths in Scotland.
The main instrument for preventive medicine in England is the NHS Health Check, introduced in 2009, aimed at assessing six major risk factors that drive early death, disability, and health inequality: alcohol intake, cholesterol levels, blood pressure, obesity, lack of physical activity, and smoking. Checks are supposed to be done every five years. A review in 2021 claimed the check had largely achieved its aims, although it reached only two in five eligible people. Other evidence notes geographical disparities in the take-up and quality of follow-up.
At its best, the NHS offers high-quality treatment free at the point of delivery, but its use of IT is frequently criticized. Media stories often highlight the lack of interoperability of IT systems, even within the same hospital, and the burden on medical staff in reconciling these systems. Rapid changes in the use of digitized services occurred during the pandemic, but there is a need to build on these improvements.
There is a vicious circle in healthcare: primary healthcare struggles to cope as appointments with physicians become harder to obtain, leading patients to go to emergency rooms, thereby increasing hospital waiting times. Failings in social care provision make it harder to move patients out of the hospital. These and other difficulties have been examined by organizations like the King’s Fund, the Commission on Health and Prosperity launched by the Institute for Public Policy Research, and a commission under the auspices of The Times newspaper. While there are some advances, such as an increase in cancer screening, the health system is notoriously slow to adapt, even when the directions for change are evident and well-documented.
Citations:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nhs-health-check-programme-review/preventing-illness-and-improving-health-for-all-a-review-of-the-nhs-health-check-programme-and-recommendations#what-the-review-found
https://www.institute.global/insights/public-services/fit-future-how-healthy-population-will-unlock-stronger-britain
https://publichealthscotland.scot/media/17437/public-health-approach-to-prevention-and-the-role-of-nhsscotland.pdf
In Scotland, a discussion paper launched in January 2023 acknowledged that too little was being invested in health protection. The paper identifies two overarching challenges: low and falling life expectancy and widening health inequalities. There has also been regular media coverage of the very high rate of drug abuse deaths in Scotland.
The main instrument for preventive medicine in England is the NHS Health Check, introduced in 2009, aimed at assessing six major risk factors that drive early death, disability, and health inequality: alcohol intake, cholesterol levels, blood pressure, obesity, lack of physical activity, and smoking. Checks are supposed to be done every five years. A review in 2021 claimed the check had largely achieved its aims, although it reached only two in five eligible people. Other evidence notes geographical disparities in the take-up and quality of follow-up.
At its best, the NHS offers high-quality treatment free at the point of delivery, but its use of IT is frequently criticized. Media stories often highlight the lack of interoperability of IT systems, even within the same hospital, and the burden on medical staff in reconciling these systems. Rapid changes in the use of digitized services occurred during the pandemic, but there is a need to build on these improvements.
There is a vicious circle in healthcare: primary healthcare struggles to cope as appointments with physicians become harder to obtain, leading patients to go to emergency rooms, thereby increasing hospital waiting times. Failings in social care provision make it harder to move patients out of the hospital. These and other difficulties have been examined by organizations like the King’s Fund, the Commission on Health and Prosperity launched by the Institute for Public Policy Research, and a commission under the auspices of The Times newspaper. While there are some advances, such as an increase in cancer screening, the health system is notoriously slow to adapt, even when the directions for change are evident and well-documented.
Citations:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nhs-health-check-programme-review/preventing-illness-and-improving-health-for-all-a-review-of-the-nhs-health-check-programme-and-recommendations#what-the-review-found
https://www.institute.global/insights/public-services/fit-future-how-healthy-population-will-unlock-stronger-britain
https://publichealthscotland.scot/media/17437/public-health-approach-to-prevention-and-the-role-of-nhsscotland.pdf
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate achieving high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving high-quality healthcare.
The National Health Service (NHS) holds iconic status within the UK and is widely considered politically untouchable. However, criticism of its functioning is growing. Since the pandemic, resources for healthcare have steadily increased, making it less convincing to argue that the service is underfunded. Health is a competence delegated to the devolved administrations, but the model of free care at the point of delivery is common to all. Differences in effectiveness are sometimes highlighted in political debates, with Conservative politicians pointing to shortcomings in Wales, where the Labour Party has long been in power.
In addition to alarming headlines about the large increase in waiting lists for treatment since the pandemic, the UK has a poor record in dealing with cancer and cardiovascular disease.
The Kings Fund, a leading health think tank, summarizes the explanations in a report: “The UK lags behind other countries in its capital investment and has substantially fewer key physical resources than many of its peers, including CT and MRI scanners and hospital beds. The UK has strikingly low levels of key clinical staff, including doctors and nurses, and is heavily reliant on foreign-trained staff.”
Citations:
https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/sites/default/files/2023-06/how_NHS_%20compares_%20summary_2023.pdf
In addition to alarming headlines about the large increase in waiting lists for treatment since the pandemic, the UK has a poor record in dealing with cancer and cardiovascular disease.
The Kings Fund, a leading health think tank, summarizes the explanations in a report: “The UK lags behind other countries in its capital investment and has substantially fewer key physical resources than many of its peers, including CT and MRI scanners and hospital beds. The UK has strikingly low levels of key clinical staff, including doctors and nurses, and is heavily reliant on foreign-trained staff.”
Citations:
https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/sites/default/files/2023-06/how_NHS_%20compares_%20summary_2023.pdf
To what extent does current health policy hinder or facilitate equitable access to high-quality healthcare?
10
9
9
Health policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
8
7
6
7
6
Health policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
5
4
3
4
3
Health policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
2
1
1
Health policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving equitable access to high-quality healthcare.
The National Health Service (NHS) is held in high esteem by the British public, who strongly support its long-established principle of “free at the point of care.” While this provides equitable access in theory, there are significant inequalities in demand and provision. Health is a devolved competence, with block grants from the central government determining the overall resources available to the respective administrations, from which they allocate health spending.
Health provision across the UK is under considerable strain. In England, for example, the waiting list for treatment soared from around 2.5 million in 2012 to a record 7.8 million in autumn 2023, with no sign of improvement. Emergency department waiting times have also increased significantly, with the proportion of patients exceeding the four-hour target peaking at 50% at the end of 2022, before slightly improving in 2023. The proportion of cancer patients starting treatment within 62 days has declined sharply, from meeting the 85% target in 2018 to around 60% in the last year. Devolved governments have also seen record levels of waiting lists.
Reducing these waiting times was one of the five pledges made by Rishi Sunak when he became prime minister, but the combination of the pandemic’s legacy (with many treatments postponed) and strike action by nurses and doctors in 2023 has aggravated the problem. Initiatives to address these issues, such as increasing training places for doctors and nurses, will take time to show results. In the meantime, inequality persists as patients with the financial means opt for private treatment.
Citations:
https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7281/
Health provision across the UK is under considerable strain. In England, for example, the waiting list for treatment soared from around 2.5 million in 2012 to a record 7.8 million in autumn 2023, with no sign of improvement. Emergency department waiting times have also increased significantly, with the proportion of patients exceeding the four-hour target peaking at 50% at the end of 2022, before slightly improving in 2023. The proportion of cancer patients starting treatment within 62 days has declined sharply, from meeting the 85% target in 2018 to around 60% in the last year. Devolved governments have also seen record levels of waiting lists.
Reducing these waiting times was one of the five pledges made by Rishi Sunak when he became prime minister, but the combination of the pandemic’s legacy (with many treatments postponed) and strike action by nurses and doctors in 2023 has aggravated the problem. Initiatives to address these issues, such as increasing training places for doctors and nurses, will take time to show results. In the meantime, inequality persists as patients with the financial means opt for private treatment.
Citations:
https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7281/
How committed is the government to ensuring gender equality in all respects?
10
9
9
The government is clearly committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
8
7
6
7
6
The government is largely committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
5
4
3
4
3
The government is only somewhat committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
2
1
1
The government is not at all committed to the goal of ensuring gender equality.
Gender equality and non-discrimination on other “protected characteristics” are provided for in the 2010 Equality Act. The legal framework, including the “public sector equality duty,” is robust in countering discrimination and contributing to changing social attitudes. However, the UK is often seen as taking a minimalist approach to “gender mainstreaming” compared to countries like Sweden (with some scope for additional action in devolved governments, as noted by Cairney et al. 2022).
High-profile incidents often highlight broad anti-discriminatory trends. For example, sports commentators mocking a female referee’s assistant have faced rapid dismissal. Cases involving trans-identified individuals have sparked public discourse on the extent of anti-discrimination measures. Recent egregious incidents of gender discrimination and misogyny in the Metropolitan Police and the South Wales Fire Service have been widely condemned, highlighting persistent issues (e.g., the Casey review 2023 describes “overt acts of homophobia, misogyny, and racism by serving officers and staff in the Met”).
The Westminster government has a minister responsible for women and equalities, currently Kemi Badenoch, who has held the post since 2022 and has also been the Secretary of State for Business and Trade since 2023. There are equivalent ministers in the devolved administrations. Badenoch oversees the Government Equalities Office (GEO), which leads policy on women, sexual orientation, and transgender equality, and works with the Cabinet Office and the Equality Hub. The Equality Hub is responsible for the gender pay gap service and related guidance for employers and has been working with employers and professional bodies to identify good practices for supporting women experiencing menopause in the workplace. In 2019, the GEO published “Gender Equality at Every Stage: A Roadmap for Change,” outlining goals and actions to advance gender equality.
Ministries and public bodies regularly update equality and diversity strategies, as do companies and other entities outside the public sector. In 2017, the government introduced legislation requiring organizations with 250 or more employees to report annually on their gender pay gap. The Office for National Statistics revealed in April 2023 that the pay gap had narrowed to 7.7%, declining by a quarter over the last decade. However, the gap is more pronounced among high earners, and the proportion of women in their 40s and 50s in senior roles is lower. Scotland has made more progress in reducing the pay gap compared to England.
Tangible progress on gender equality has been made, and policy is supportive, with the World Economic Forum index placing the UK toward the top of its league table (though still behind the Nordic countries and the Netherlands). However, research by the Institute for Fiscal Studies suggests that the pandemic and associated policy responses negatively affected gender equality in the workplace. The representation of women in top management and on boards also remains low.
Citations:
https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/bulletins/genderpaygapintheuk/2023
https://ifs.org.uk/publications/covid-19-impacts-pandemic-inequality
Paul Cairney, Emily St Denny, and Sean Kippin. 2021. “Policy Learning to Reduce Inequalities: The Search for a Coherent Scottish Gender Mainstreaming Policy in a Multi-level UK.” Territory, Politics, Governance 9 (3): 412-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2020.1837661
Casey, L. 2023. Baroness Casey Review. Final Report. An Independent Review into
the Standards of Behaviour and Internal Culture of the Metropolitan Police Service
https://www.met.police.uk/SysSiteAssets/
media/ downloads/ met/ about- us/ baron ess- casey- rev iew/ upd ate- march- 2023/
baron ess- casey- rev iew- march- 2023a.pdf
High-profile incidents often highlight broad anti-discriminatory trends. For example, sports commentators mocking a female referee’s assistant have faced rapid dismissal. Cases involving trans-identified individuals have sparked public discourse on the extent of anti-discrimination measures. Recent egregious incidents of gender discrimination and misogyny in the Metropolitan Police and the South Wales Fire Service have been widely condemned, highlighting persistent issues (e.g., the Casey review 2023 describes “overt acts of homophobia, misogyny, and racism by serving officers and staff in the Met”).
The Westminster government has a minister responsible for women and equalities, currently Kemi Badenoch, who has held the post since 2022 and has also been the Secretary of State for Business and Trade since 2023. There are equivalent ministers in the devolved administrations. Badenoch oversees the Government Equalities Office (GEO), which leads policy on women, sexual orientation, and transgender equality, and works with the Cabinet Office and the Equality Hub. The Equality Hub is responsible for the gender pay gap service and related guidance for employers and has been working with employers and professional bodies to identify good practices for supporting women experiencing menopause in the workplace. In 2019, the GEO published “Gender Equality at Every Stage: A Roadmap for Change,” outlining goals and actions to advance gender equality.
Ministries and public bodies regularly update equality and diversity strategies, as do companies and other entities outside the public sector. In 2017, the government introduced legislation requiring organizations with 250 or more employees to report annually on their gender pay gap. The Office for National Statistics revealed in April 2023 that the pay gap had narrowed to 7.7%, declining by a quarter over the last decade. However, the gap is more pronounced among high earners, and the proportion of women in their 40s and 50s in senior roles is lower. Scotland has made more progress in reducing the pay gap compared to England.
Tangible progress on gender equality has been made, and policy is supportive, with the World Economic Forum index placing the UK toward the top of its league table (though still behind the Nordic countries and the Netherlands). However, research by the Institute for Fiscal Studies suggests that the pandemic and associated policy responses negatively affected gender equality in the workplace. The representation of women in top management and on boards also remains low.
Citations:
https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/bulletins/genderpaygapintheuk/2023
https://ifs.org.uk/publications/covid-19-impacts-pandemic-inequality
Paul Cairney, Emily St Denny, and Sean Kippin. 2021. “Policy Learning to Reduce Inequalities: The Search for a Coherent Scottish Gender Mainstreaming Policy in a Multi-level UK.” Territory, Politics, Governance 9 (3): 412-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622671.2020.1837661
Casey, L. 2023. Baroness Casey Review. Final Report. An Independent Review into
the Standards of Behaviour and Internal Culture of the Metropolitan Police Service
https://www.met.police.uk/SysSiteAssets/
media/ downloads/ met/ about- us/ baron ess- casey- rev iew/ upd ate- march- 2023/
baron ess- casey- rev iew- march- 2023a.pdf
To what extent does the current family policy approach support or hinder unpaid family care work?
10
9
9
Family policies are fully aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
8
7
6
7
6
Family policies are largely aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
5
4
3
4
3
Family policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of creating the conditions for strong families.
2
1
1
Family policies are not at all aligned with the goal of creating family-friendly conditions.
Over the last 20 years, policy initiatives aimed at improving work-life balance and increasing women’s participation in the labor market have included expanding childcare facilities, extending maternity leave, and introducing paternity leave. Statutory maternity leave in the UK is 52 weeks – double the WHO standard – divided into two six-month segments labeled “ordinary” and “additional.” Pay entitlements are more complicated, with some costs met by employers, lasting up to 39 weeks. In the first six weeks, the amount payable is 90% of the recipient’s average weekly earnings (before tax), then drops to £172.48 or 90% of the recipient’s average weekly earnings (whichever is lower) for the next 33 weeks. Statutory paternity leave is two weeks, with the option to share maternity leave, extending paternity leave using some of the mother’s entitlement. Fathers also have the right to take unpaid time off work to accompany mothers to antenatal appointments.
High childcare costs, mainly due to private provision, and the overstretched budgets of local authorities responsible for social care are two evident problems in UK family policy. Recent reforms could transform childcare provisions, but comparisons with Sweden suggest that the UK’s plans lack a supportive wider architecture (Cohen et al. 2021). Previously, workers earning around average wages had little left after paying for childcare, but for single earners, Universal Credit offers additional support. However, there is an acknowledged problem of “tapering” – the progressive withdrawal of benefits as more is earned – creating a high marginal disincentive to work more.
Cuts in welfare spending, driven by central government policies to reduce public expenditure, have negatively affected core family policy measures, especially for single mothers who rely disproportionately on social benefits, and larger families. There is a disability allowance for children, and carers for disabled children can claim an allowance under Universal Credit. Employees have the right to take time off work to help someone who depends on them in an unexpected event, but whether this time is remunerated is at the discretion of employers.
A rebranded “troubled families” program, introduced during the coalition government (in office from 2010), was subsequently renamed “supporting families.” It targets families facing “multiple and often overlapping vulnerabilities, such as financial or housing insecurity, poor mental or physical health, domestic abuse, children at risk of harm, poor educational attainment, or substance misuse.” From March 2023, the program will support an additional 100,000 families, having already supported 650,000. However, it has faced criticism for stigmatizing families and being used to explain the London riots of 2011, with dedicated funding offset by cuts to local authority budgets (Crossley 2015).
Citations:
Cohen, B., Moss, P., Petrie, P., and Wallace, J. 2021. “A New Deal for
Children?” – what happened next: A cross-national study of transferring early
childhood services into education.” Early Years 41 (2-3): 110-127. https://doi.
org/ 10.1080/ 09575 146.2018.1504 753
Crossley, S. 2015b. The Troubled Families Programme: The Perfect Social Policy?
(London: Centre for Crime and Justice Studies. https://www.crimeandjust)
ice.org.uk/publications/troubled-families-programme-perfect-social-policy
High childcare costs, mainly due to private provision, and the overstretched budgets of local authorities responsible for social care are two evident problems in UK family policy. Recent reforms could transform childcare provisions, but comparisons with Sweden suggest that the UK’s plans lack a supportive wider architecture (Cohen et al. 2021). Previously, workers earning around average wages had little left after paying for childcare, but for single earners, Universal Credit offers additional support. However, there is an acknowledged problem of “tapering” – the progressive withdrawal of benefits as more is earned – creating a high marginal disincentive to work more.
Cuts in welfare spending, driven by central government policies to reduce public expenditure, have negatively affected core family policy measures, especially for single mothers who rely disproportionately on social benefits, and larger families. There is a disability allowance for children, and carers for disabled children can claim an allowance under Universal Credit. Employees have the right to take time off work to help someone who depends on them in an unexpected event, but whether this time is remunerated is at the discretion of employers.
A rebranded “troubled families” program, introduced during the coalition government (in office from 2010), was subsequently renamed “supporting families.” It targets families facing “multiple and often overlapping vulnerabilities, such as financial or housing insecurity, poor mental or physical health, domestic abuse, children at risk of harm, poor educational attainment, or substance misuse.” From March 2023, the program will support an additional 100,000 families, having already supported 650,000. However, it has faced criticism for stigmatizing families and being used to explain the London riots of 2011, with dedicated funding offset by cuts to local authority budgets (Crossley 2015).
Citations:
Cohen, B., Moss, P., Petrie, P., and Wallace, J. 2021. “A New Deal for
Children?” – what happened next: A cross-national study of transferring early
childhood services into education.” Early Years 41 (2-3): 110-127. https://doi.
org/ 10.1080/ 09575 146.2018.1504 753
Crossley, S. 2015b. The Troubled Families Programme: The Perfect Social Policy?
(London: Centre for Crime and Justice Studies. https://www.crimeandjust)
ice.org.uk/publications/troubled-families-programme-perfect-social-policy
To what extent does the current pension policy approach prevent poverty among senior citizens?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of preventing old-age poverty.
The United Kingdom has a three-pillar pension system, with the second pillar (employer-based pensions) being the mainstay. Private pension funds were adversely affected by the financial crisis as investment yields fell, leading some to require capital injections from employers. However, this has not significantly affected the incomes of those already retired. New entrants into second-pillar pension schemes are often offered less attractive terms than their predecessors. Successive pensions acts since 2016 have increased the state pension age to 66 for both men and women as of April 2021. Previously, the age was 60 for women and 65 for men, and the rapid increase for women led to complaints about inequities for those on certain age-cohort boundaries. The age will rise again in 2026 to 67.
The “new state pension,” introduced in 2016, offers a higher rate than the “basic pension” for men born after April 6, 1951, and women born after April 6, 1953, with different requirements for national insurance contributions. For the basic pension, eligibility was based on one year of contributions for those born between 1945 and 1951, but 11 years for men and 10 for women if born earlier. Those on the basic pension are eligible for the “additional state pension” and certain other financial supports.
Compared to many other countries, the UK state pension system is fiscally sustainable and guarantees a minimum income for pensioners through a “triple lock,” which raises the basic state pension by the highest of inflation, average wages, or 2% per annum. Successive governments have pledged to maintain this policy, despite criticism about the growing burden on younger generations. However, faced with an exceptional increase in average earnings in 2021 due to a statistical quirk, the government suspended the triple lock for one year, resulting in a lower nominal increase of 3.1%. This decision provoked an outcry, especially from government supporters who saw it as breaking a manifesto commitment.
The UK used to have a relatively high degree of poverty among the elderly compared to other European countries. Older people without earnings-related pensions still face a higher risk of poverty. This situation has improved as pension provision has expanded, more pensioners own mortgage-free properties, and specific additional payments, such as winter heating allowances, have been introduced.
Despite overall improvements, there are inequalities among groups of pensioners. Lifelong housewives, for example, fare worse than those who can add occupational or private pensions to their state pension income. Inadequacies in publicly funded care home provision for the elderly can also cause difficulties due to the high cost of private care homes, sometimes obliging families to draw down assets. Most pensioners, however, are on reasonably comfortable incomes. Recent debates have focused on cutting some fringe benefits for better-off pensioners, such as free bus travel, due to concerns about the burden on younger generations.
The “new state pension,” introduced in 2016, offers a higher rate than the “basic pension” for men born after April 6, 1951, and women born after April 6, 1953, with different requirements for national insurance contributions. For the basic pension, eligibility was based on one year of contributions for those born between 1945 and 1951, but 11 years for men and 10 for women if born earlier. Those on the basic pension are eligible for the “additional state pension” and certain other financial supports.
Compared to many other countries, the UK state pension system is fiscally sustainable and guarantees a minimum income for pensioners through a “triple lock,” which raises the basic state pension by the highest of inflation, average wages, or 2% per annum. Successive governments have pledged to maintain this policy, despite criticism about the growing burden on younger generations. However, faced with an exceptional increase in average earnings in 2021 due to a statistical quirk, the government suspended the triple lock for one year, resulting in a lower nominal increase of 3.1%. This decision provoked an outcry, especially from government supporters who saw it as breaking a manifesto commitment.
The UK used to have a relatively high degree of poverty among the elderly compared to other European countries. Older people without earnings-related pensions still face a higher risk of poverty. This situation has improved as pension provision has expanded, more pensioners own mortgage-free properties, and specific additional payments, such as winter heating allowances, have been introduced.
Despite overall improvements, there are inequalities among groups of pensioners. Lifelong housewives, for example, fare worse than those who can add occupational or private pensions to their state pension income. Inadequacies in publicly funded care home provision for the elderly can also cause difficulties due to the high cost of private care homes, sometimes obliging families to draw down assets. Most pensioners, however, are on reasonably comfortable incomes. Recent debates have focused on cutting some fringe benefits for better-off pensioners, such as free bus travel, due to concerns about the burden on younger generations.
To what extent does the current pension policy approach hinder or promote intergenerational equity?
10
9
9
Pension policies are fully aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
8
7
6
7
6
Pension policies are largely aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
5
4
3
4
3
Pension policies are only somewhat aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
2
1
1
Pension policies are not at all aligned with the goal of achieving intergenerational equity.
There is no obligatory retirement age in the UK, and the public pension system offers incentives to remain in employment by providing higher pensions for those who defer retirement. According to the Mercer index, the UK ranks just below the Nordic countries and is among the better-performing systems globally.
The state pension is pay-as-you-go and is not directly linked to the level of national insurance payments made by individuals, though it does reflect years of contributions. The relatively low level of the state pension means the burden on the working-age population is contained, although there are complementary benefits for poorer pensioners. For the majority of retirees, occupational pensions are a more substantial source of income. Despite the increasing number of pension-age individuals and the rising pension age, the pension burden is higher than in the 2000s but remains well below the OECD average.
Provisions already in place should ensure that the pension system remains adequately funded and intergenerationally fair. According to the Institute for Fiscal Studies, some pensioners “are close to or above the relative poverty line, even if they have no other income,” and it asserts that “the state pension is not in need of wholesale change.” The key debate in the UK is about the “triple lock,” credited with raising the relative value of the state pension. However, it could increase the burden on younger generations in the long term and is likely to be a policy question in the next general election.
Wealth distribution, especially mortgage-free property, presents a challenge for younger generations, as does the likelihood of increased health and social care spending for the elderly.
Citations:
https://ifs.org.uk/publications/future-state-pension
The state pension is pay-as-you-go and is not directly linked to the level of national insurance payments made by individuals, though it does reflect years of contributions. The relatively low level of the state pension means the burden on the working-age population is contained, although there are complementary benefits for poorer pensioners. For the majority of retirees, occupational pensions are a more substantial source of income. Despite the increasing number of pension-age individuals and the rising pension age, the pension burden is higher than in the 2000s but remains well below the OECD average.
Provisions already in place should ensure that the pension system remains adequately funded and intergenerationally fair. According to the Institute for Fiscal Studies, some pensioners “are close to or above the relative poverty line, even if they have no other income,” and it asserts that “the state pension is not in need of wholesale change.” The key debate in the UK is about the “triple lock,” credited with raising the relative value of the state pension. However, it could increase the burden on younger generations in the long term and is likely to be a policy question in the next general election.
Wealth distribution, especially mortgage-free property, presents a challenge for younger generations, as does the likelihood of increased health and social care spending for the elderly.
Citations:
https://ifs.org.uk/publications/future-state-pension
To what extent does the current policy approach hinder or facilitate the inclusion of migrants into society and the labor market?
10
9
9
Integration policies are fully aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
8
7
6
7
6
Integration policies are largely aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
5
4
3
4
3
Integration policies are only somewhat aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
2
1
1
Integration policies are not at all aligned with achieving the sustainable inclusion of migrants in society.
Despite being relatively open to migrants for many decades, the scale of net inward migration has become a more salient policy issue since the run-up to the Brexit referendum. Mobile workers from Central and Eastern European countries after EU accession were not constrained, and the UK had also welcomed substantial numbers from other EU countries. However, tensions have arisen in areas where migrants are relatively concentrated, particularly around access to public services such as education, scarce social housing, and primary healthcare. A policy associated particularly with Theresa May, initially as Home Secretary and later as Prime Minister, aimed to create a more “hostile environment” for immigrants. This policy became toxic during the Windrush scandal, which concerned immigrants from the 1950s and 1960s who had never had their status regularized and were suddenly confronted with expulsion.
Nevertheless, a distinction must be drawn between authorized migrants and the more recent phenomenon of irregular migration, mainly involving individuals crossing the Channel in small boats. This issue has become politically sensitive. Irregular migrants are not entitled to work and face severe problems in finding sufficient accommodation, including the use of army camps and a notorious barge moored in a south coast harbor. Approximately 45% of these migrants are housed in temporary accommodation and receive subsistence support.
The Home Office has a poor record in processing asylum applications, despite claims of increasing its capability. In September 2023, the backlog amounted to 125,000, down by 7% from the previous quarter but still higher than the same time in 2022. In 2018, the figure was just 22,000. The proportion of applications decided within six months is well below pre-pandemic rates, though it is slowly improving as more staff are assigned to the task. A government policy to send irregular migrants to Rwanda has faced repeated legal challenges and was rejected by the Supreme Court. A fresh attempt by the government to legislate around the Supreme Court decision is making its way through Parliament, but expectations are low regarding its effectiveness in deterring irregular migration.
Regular migrants are another story entirely. Despite the above-mentioned local frictions, the UK has generally been able to absorb and integrate migrants into the labor force without undue stress. The recent rise in net immigration, partly due to migration from Ukraine and Hong Kong, has prompted a tightening of policy.
This policy revision has fairly wide support, but the Migration Advisory Council (MAC), an independent body advising the government on migration issues, has raised several concerns in its latest annual report. It highlighted “the exploitation of migrants and the abuse of the immigration system,” specifically citing care workers allowed into the UK under the Shortage Occupation List (SOL). This arrangement allows the government to designate sectors in dire need of recruitment, and the MAC noted that many people receive care that would not be possible without this visa route.
In response, the government is ending an arrangement under which SOL workers could be paid below the going rate, though still subject to minimum wage standards. The MAC also pointed out that lower levels of exploitation in Scotland can be explained by better pay and professionalization of the workforce compared to England.
Student visas also pose challenges because they allow recipients to work, often in minimum-wage jobs, while studying. There is evidence that a sizable number of students remain in the UK after graduation but do not work in jobs commensurate with their qualifications. The number of student visas issued jumped by 54% between 2019 and 2022, with significant increases in people arriving from India, Nigeria, and Pakistan. A quarter of these visas are for dependent family members, a substantial increase that the new government policy proposes to curb. There are concerns that the sheer number of visas will further strain public services.
In relation to housing and public services, the difficulties that arise are as much due to poor provision as new demand from migrants. Migrants from the EU tend to have higher employment rates and, consequently, contribute to tax revenue. For the majority of economic migrants, language is not a significant barrier because English is often a reason for choosing the UK, though it can be a greater challenge for dependent family members.
Citations:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/migration-advisory-committee-annual-report-2023/migration-advisory-committee-mac-annual-report-2023-accessible#chapter-3-international-students
Nevertheless, a distinction must be drawn between authorized migrants and the more recent phenomenon of irregular migration, mainly involving individuals crossing the Channel in small boats. This issue has become politically sensitive. Irregular migrants are not entitled to work and face severe problems in finding sufficient accommodation, including the use of army camps and a notorious barge moored in a south coast harbor. Approximately 45% of these migrants are housed in temporary accommodation and receive subsistence support.
The Home Office has a poor record in processing asylum applications, despite claims of increasing its capability. In September 2023, the backlog amounted to 125,000, down by 7% from the previous quarter but still higher than the same time in 2022. In 2018, the figure was just 22,000. The proportion of applications decided within six months is well below pre-pandemic rates, though it is slowly improving as more staff are assigned to the task. A government policy to send irregular migrants to Rwanda has faced repeated legal challenges and was rejected by the Supreme Court. A fresh attempt by the government to legislate around the Supreme Court decision is making its way through Parliament, but expectations are low regarding its effectiveness in deterring irregular migration.
Regular migrants are another story entirely. Despite the above-mentioned local frictions, the UK has generally been able to absorb and integrate migrants into the labor force without undue stress. The recent rise in net immigration, partly due to migration from Ukraine and Hong Kong, has prompted a tightening of policy.
This policy revision has fairly wide support, but the Migration Advisory Council (MAC), an independent body advising the government on migration issues, has raised several concerns in its latest annual report. It highlighted “the exploitation of migrants and the abuse of the immigration system,” specifically citing care workers allowed into the UK under the Shortage Occupation List (SOL). This arrangement allows the government to designate sectors in dire need of recruitment, and the MAC noted that many people receive care that would not be possible without this visa route.
In response, the government is ending an arrangement under which SOL workers could be paid below the going rate, though still subject to minimum wage standards. The MAC also pointed out that lower levels of exploitation in Scotland can be explained by better pay and professionalization of the workforce compared to England.
Student visas also pose challenges because they allow recipients to work, often in minimum-wage jobs, while studying. There is evidence that a sizable number of students remain in the UK after graduation but do not work in jobs commensurate with their qualifications. The number of student visas issued jumped by 54% between 2019 and 2022, with significant increases in people arriving from India, Nigeria, and Pakistan. A quarter of these visas are for dependent family members, a substantial increase that the new government policy proposes to curb. There are concerns that the sheer number of visas will further strain public services.
In relation to housing and public services, the difficulties that arise are as much due to poor provision as new demand from migrants. Migrants from the EU tend to have higher employment rates and, consequently, contribute to tax revenue. For the majority of economic migrants, language is not a significant barrier because English is often a reason for choosing the UK, though it can be a greater challenge for dependent family members.
Citations:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/migration-advisory-committee-annual-report-2023/migration-advisory-committee-mac-annual-report-2023-accessible#chapter-3-international-students
How committed is the government to helping build the capacity to reduce poverty and provide social protection in low- and middle-income countries?
10
9
9
The government’s development cooperation strategy is fully aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
8
7
6
7
6
The government’s development cooperation strategy is largely aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
5
4
3
4
3
The government’s development cooperation strategy is only somewhat aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building in poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
2
1
1
The government’s development cooperation strategy is not all aligned with the goal of improving capacity-building for poverty reduction in low- and middle-income countries.
The International Development (Official Development Assistance Target) Act 2015 updated previous legislation and established an obligation to allocate 0.7% of GDP to official development assistance, a target set by the United Nations. Despite regular objections from populist politicians who argue that the government should focus on domestic priorities, the United Kingdom was one of the few OECD countries to meet this target pre-pandemic. Failure to meet the target requires the responsible minister to explain to Parliament why it “has not been met in the report year and, if relevant, refer to the effect of one or more of the following: economic circumstances and, in particular, any substantial change in gross national income; fiscal circumstances and, in particular, the likely impact of meeting the target on taxation, public spending and public borrowing; circumstances arising outside the United Kingdom.” he 2015 Act also obliges the government to evaluate the effectiveness of its support.
From 2013 to 2020, the target was met consistently. However, in November 2020, the government announced a reduction to 0.5% of GDP from 2021, citing the fiscal demands of the pandemic. This decision, which broke a manifesto commitment, was intended as a temporary measure, but subsequent announcements suggest it will not be restored until late in the current decade. The then-Chancellor, Rishi Sunak, explained that the reduction reflected “people’s priorities” during an unprecedented economic emergency. The decision provoked criticism from all living former prime ministers, many Conservative MPs, and representatives of numerous NGOs, who were concerned about the disruption of key programs. Earlier in 2020, the Department for International Development had been merged into the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to create the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. Concerns summarized in a House of Lords briefing suggest that the loss of a separate voice in government dilutes the aid effort and shifts the focus away from poverty alleviation to fostering foreign and trade policy objectives. Additionally, there have been objections to some of the aid budget being used by other departments, especially the Home Office, to help meet the costs of dealing with refugees within the UK, and a reduced willingness to work with multilateral agencies.
In May 2022, a new International Development Strategy was adopted, focusing on four pillars: delivering honest and reliable investment, providing women and girls with the freedom they need to succeed, offering principled humanitarian assistance, and supporting progress on climate change, nature, and global health. An update in August 2023 aimed “to modernize our development partnerships and to deliver a global campaign to progress 7 initiatives critical to our partners and the achievement of the globally agreed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).” A white paper published in November 2023 further affirmed the UK’s commitment to the SDGs and signaled more efforts to work with global partners.
Despite the cut, the United Kingdom remains a major aid contributor, comfortably above the OECD average. Assuming the commitments in the white paper are implemented, the UK’s role in reducing global poverty is likely to be enhanced.
Citations:
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6560874b0c7ec8000d95bdcf/international-development-in-a-contested-world-ending-extreme-poverty-and-tackling-climate-change.pdf
https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/uk-aid-spending-statistics-and-recent-developments/#heading-8
From 2013 to 2020, the target was met consistently. However, in November 2020, the government announced a reduction to 0.5% of GDP from 2021, citing the fiscal demands of the pandemic. This decision, which broke a manifesto commitment, was intended as a temporary measure, but subsequent announcements suggest it will not be restored until late in the current decade. The then-Chancellor, Rishi Sunak, explained that the reduction reflected “people’s priorities” during an unprecedented economic emergency. The decision provoked criticism from all living former prime ministers, many Conservative MPs, and representatives of numerous NGOs, who were concerned about the disruption of key programs. Earlier in 2020, the Department for International Development had been merged into the Foreign and Commonwealth Office to create the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. Concerns summarized in a House of Lords briefing suggest that the loss of a separate voice in government dilutes the aid effort and shifts the focus away from poverty alleviation to fostering foreign and trade policy objectives. Additionally, there have been objections to some of the aid budget being used by other departments, especially the Home Office, to help meet the costs of dealing with refugees within the UK, and a reduced willingness to work with multilateral agencies.
In May 2022, a new International Development Strategy was adopted, focusing on four pillars: delivering honest and reliable investment, providing women and girls with the freedom they need to succeed, offering principled humanitarian assistance, and supporting progress on climate change, nature, and global health. An update in August 2023 aimed “to modernize our development partnerships and to deliver a global campaign to progress 7 initiatives critical to our partners and the achievement of the globally agreed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).” A white paper published in November 2023 further affirmed the UK’s commitment to the SDGs and signaled more efforts to work with global partners.
Despite the cut, the United Kingdom remains a major aid contributor, comfortably above the OECD average. Assuming the commitments in the white paper are implemented, the UK’s role in reducing global poverty is likely to be enhanced.
Citations:
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6560874b0c7ec8000d95bdcf/international-development-in-a-contested-world-ending-extreme-poverty-and-tackling-climate-change.pdf
https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/uk-aid-spending-statistics-and-recent-developments/#heading-8